"There is a serious danger that fire policy will be developed on the basis of work carried out in the context of the market place rather than being underpinned by research which has been subjected to full process of academic rigour and peer review" Professor D Drysdale (European Vice-Chair, International Association of Fire Safety Sciences) and D T Davis (Chair of the Executive Committee, Institution of Fire Engineers). Fire Engineers Journal 61, 10, 6-7

Contributors Content Homepage Useful links Research Advice About us Contact us	Richards, L. (1996) Firefighting- dousing the flames of equality: a study of the social and physical factors affecting the recruitment of women as firefighters, dissertation for BCC: Moreton in Marsh: The Fire Service College, fitting-in.com.
Contributors Content Useful links Research Advice Homepage About us Contact us	Abstract “One could make a good case for the fact that the world is suffering from an overdose of masculine assertiveness” David McClelland of the Dept of Social Relations at Harvard This report seeks to examine and identify the social and physical constraints that affect women joining the fire service. A number of conclusions have been arrived at which it is felt may broaden the understanding of this issue. The fieldwork was carried out in three fire departments in the United States of America. Chosen because of their relative success in recruiting and keeping women firefighters. The departments visited included San Diego, Louisville and Fairfax County. In addition the opportunity was taken to interview the Fire Chiefs of Solano Beach and Prince William County Fire Departments. The assistance of the equal opportunities departments of West Midlands Fire Service and London Fire & Civil Defence Authority was also sought in providing a comparator with United Kingdom fire brigades as was the researcher’s own brigade, Somerset. Research was undertaken outside of the fire service seeking the views of a cross section of the community of employable age and those approaching an employable age. This was done using questionnaires distributed to universities, secondary schools, colleges and small businesses. These questionnaires were primarily targeting women but men were also encouraged to complete them. The study revealed that there are a number of factors affecting the social conditioning of men and women which impact on their development both physically and socially. These factors are part of a wider cultural and social field than the fire service. The importance of physical capability is accepted but the validity of current entry tests is questioned. The report concludes that men have difficulty accepting women as equals. This stems from an attitude developed as a product of social conditioning that overspills into marriages and relationships as well as the fire service environment. The success of positive action initiatives is acknowledged but the appropriateness of such action is challenged. It recognises the difficulty in promulgating careers information when fire brigades recruit so infrequently but emphasises the need to consider the effect of this. The conclusions are believed to be applicable to the fire service and a number of recommendations are made.
Contributors Content Homepage Useful links Research Advice Contact us About us	Acknowledgements There are a number of people to whom I owe my gratitude, without whose help and assistance it would not have been possible to complete this project. It is not practical to list all of them but my particular thanks are due to the following people. Russ Sanders of the National Fire Protection Association for providing a wealth of information and contacts and for the help in organising the fieldwork. Chief Robert Osby and the personnel of San Diego Fire Department. In addition I would like to thank Lesli Halik for her help in arranging interviews and Greg George for his companionship and driving me around. Chief John Corso and the personnel of Louisville Fire Department. In particular I would like to thank Larry MocCoskey and his wife and family for their hospitality and making me feel at home in a foreign land. Chief Glenn Gaines and the personnel of Fairfax County Fire Department, particularly David Holland for his assistance in arranging interviews and transporting me about. Paul Young, my own Chief Fire Officer, for his encouragement and assistance. Margaret Penton and her staff at West Midlands Fire Service Equal Opportunities Department for their valuable contribution. Lyn Williams and her staff of London Fire and Civil Defence Authority’s Equal Opportunities Department for their help and contribution. Female firefighter ****************, for her frankness and honesty during our discussions. Lena Wanford and Professor David James, the assessors and tutors of this project for their valuable guidance and personal interests. The staff of the Fire Service College Library and the Police College Library for their assistance in obtaining books and publications. My long suffering personal assistants, Kam-yee Burgess and Andrea Glanville, for their perseverance and professional assistance and the typing and presentation of this report and to all of my staff who shouldered some of my duties to allow me the time to work on it. Last but by no means least to my wife Cindy for her support and understanding. To my son Neil who found time during the final examinations of his B.Ed (Hons) degree to help his dad back on line and to my daughter Vicky for her help with library searches at Portsmouth University. Thank you.
	CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT SUMMARY Page CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Background, Identification of the Problem, The Present Study, The Hypothesis, The Objectives CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6 Introduction, Fire Service Structure, Equal Opportunities Legislation, Historical Employment, Occupational Segregation, Trade Unions, Social Constraints, Physical Constraints, Cultural Constraints, Summary CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 27 Research Rationale, The Sample, Questionnaires, Interviews CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 36 Introduction, Results of the Questionnaires, Results of the Interviews, Comparisons CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 65 Preface, Firefighting as a Career for Women, Views of Friends and Relatives, Difficulties Experienced by Women Firefighters, Physical Fitness and Firefighting, Publicity and Careers Information, Qualities of a Firefighter, Positive Recruitment Initiatives, Women Firefighters as Equals CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 95 Conclusions, Examination of the Hypothesis, Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY 107  Some of the figures and appendices have not travelled to the web in true format this will be dealt with in due course. site.manager@fitting-in.com LIST OF FIGURES Page GROUP ONE (NON-FIRE BRIGADE PERSONNEL) FIGURE 1 The Fire Service as a Career 38 FIGURE 2 Views of Friends and Relatives 42 FIGURE 3 Information about the Fire Service 45 FIGURE 4 The Qualities required of a Firefighter 47 FIGURE 5 Physical Fitness and Firefighting 48 GROUP TWO (FIRE BRIGADE PERSONNEL) FIGURE 6 Views of Relatives and Friends 50 FIGURE 7 Difficulties experienced by Women Firefighters 53 FIGURE 8 Information about the Fire Service 55 FIGURE 9 The Personal Qualities of a Firefighter 60 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 Reasons for choosing the Fire Service as a Career 49 TABLE 2 The Equality of Women as Firefighters 58 LIST OF APPENDICES Some of the figures and appendices have not travelled to the web in true format this will be dealt with in due course. site.manager@fitting-in.com APPENDIX 1 Master Questionnaire (Non Fire Brigade Personnel) APPENDIX 2 Sample of Completed Questionnaire (Non Fire Brigade Personnel) APPENDIX 3 Master Questionnaire (Fire Brigade Personnel) APPENDIX 4 Sample of Completed Questionnaire (Fire Brigade Personnel) APPENDIX 5a Questionnaire Record Sheet - Universities APPENDIX 5b Questionnaire Record Sheet - Colleges APPENDIX 5c Questionnaire Record Sheet - Schools APPENDIX 5d Questionnaire Record Sheet - Employed (Non Fire Brigade) APPENDIX 5e Questionnaire Record Sheet United Kingdom Fire Brigades APPENDIX 5f Questionnaire Record Sheet San Diego Fire Department APPENDIX 5g Questionnaire Record Sheet Louisville Fire Department APPENDIX 5h Questionnaire Record Sheet Fairfax County Fire Department APPENDIX 6 Interview Master sheet APPENDIX 7 Interview Content Record APPENDIX 8 Guidance Note for Employers, Equal Opportunities Commission APPENDIX 9 Physical Ability Test, San Diego Fire Department APPENDIX 10 Female Recruitment Survey

Richards, L. (1996) Firefighting- dousing the flames of equality: a study of the social and physical factors affecting the recruitment of women as firefighters, dissertation for BCC: Moreton in Marsh: The Fire Service College, fitting-in.com.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

The annual report of HM Chief Inspector of Fire Services, Bryan Collins was issued on 31 October 1995. The report indicated that the number of women firefighters had risen by a quarter from 266 in January 1994 to 332 in January 1995.

Whilst applauding the increase in women firefighters, when compared with the overall number of firefighters, 51,207, the percentage of women firefighters, 0.65%, is still disturbingly low. Equal opportunities legislation has been in place for 20 years and the Fire Service has been subject to the provisions of that legislation. But these figures indicate that little progress has been made in developing a workforce that is representative of the community it serves.

The publication of a study into equal opportunities in the fire service (Bucke 1994) acknowledged that it is not easy to recruit women. The report indicated that women generally thought that they would not be able to match the physical requirements of a firefighter, with strength and fitness being the predominant qualities that women believed necessary and that they did not possess.

1.2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

The Appointment and Promotion Regulations 1978 stipulate a minimum and maximum height and age criteria for appointment as a firefighter. A study of census data carried out in the researcher’s own brigade (see appendix 10) indicates that 7.6% of the local population that meet both the age and height criteria are women. The number of women firefighters in the researcher’s brigade, 0.7%, equates with the national average of 0.65%. This shortfall between the number of women eligible for employment as a firefighter compared with those actually employed as firefighters after considering the physical restriction imposed caused the researcher to question what other factors affect the recruitment of women.

1.3 THE PRESENT STUDY

Prior to the introduction of equal opportunities legislation women were considered to have a social status which precluded them from working in certain environments. Janeway (1977) commenting on the suggestion that a woman’s place is in the home stated:

“If we were to offer it for debate it’s easy to guess how the debate would go. It would not centre on whether the proposition is true, but whether it ought to be true.”

Janeway (1977) p.14

Progress in attracting women into the fire service has not achieved the levels that truly represent the number of women in society that are able to meet the physical requirements of the appointment and promotion regulations. To attempt to cover all of the reasons behind this would be beyond the scope of this project. The researcher has chosen to consider the social rather than physical factors affecting the decision of women to join the fire service.

1.4 THE HYPOTHESIS

The thoughts that prompted the research proposal were more general in their nature and reflected the researcher’s concern that there was a general acceptance that the physical requirements were the cause of the problem. There was, therefore, a need to provide a focus for the study and to define the aims and objectives. A hypothesis was constructed to provide this focus.

Women fail to join the fire service due to social rather than physical constraints.

The hypothesis is accepted as being complex despite having been refined from the original concept of women do not apply to join the fire service due to sociological rather than physiological constraints. This was considered to be too wide an issue and could not be covered within the limitations on time and word scope of the project. The refined hypothesis still does justice to the study but contains assumptions that are not clearly defined.

- what is meant by ‘social’

- what can be understood by ‘rather than’

- what is meant by ‘physical’

These assumptions will be discussed and definitions considered within the report.

1.5 THE OBJECTIVES

The hypothesis is supported by the following objectives.

· To determine a suitable method of gathering and compiling the data.

· To present and discuss the data collected in a manner enabling the researcher to produce conclusions supported by the evidence of the data.

· To examine the value of proactive initiatives aimed at increasing the number of women in the fire service.

· To consider the social factors which work against their effectiveness.

· To highlight factors and make recommendations for future considerations.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Research concerning the social and physical constraints affecting the employment of women in the fire service is very limited. Most of the research tends to centre around the commercial and industrial sector, with some research having been done on the subject in respect of the police force. Therefore the majority of the following literature review is based on these areas although reference is made where appropriate to the fire service.

Most readers of this report will be familiar with the format and make up of fire brigades in the UK and much has been written about American fire services in other reports. An overview highlighting the salient differences is provided for the benefit of those who are considering this subject without the advantages of this prior information.

2.2 FIRE SERVICE STRUCTURE

2.2.1. Fire Service in the United Kingdom

Following the Second World War fire services in the United Kingdom were returned to local authority control under the Fire Services Act 1947. There are 58 fire services each of which has a Chief Fire Officer responsible to locally elected members who constitute the fire authority for its efficient operation. These fire brigades, whilst managed and partially funded locally, operate under national guidelines issued by the Home Office.

There is standardisation of training and provision and whilst these are determined locally they follow the guidelines laid down nationally. The staffing levels of a brigade and its recruitment procedures are a matter for local determination but are governed by the Appointment and Promotion Regulations 1978 as amended in 1988 and 1991. Central monitoring and control of the effectiveness and efficiency of each fire brigade is by inspection by Her Majesties Inspector of Fire Services. Any variation to the establishment can only be made after approval by the Secretary of State. Fire Services in the United Kingdom are relatively standardised and follow nationally controlled guidelines.

2.2.2. Fire Services in the United States of America

Unlike in the United Kingdom standardisation in the provision of fire services in the United States of America does not exist. The provision of services in the United States is very much decided by local preferences and policy and the fire service is no exception, with the level of service provided being a matter of negotiation between the fire chief and elected local members. The fire chief, being appointed by city officials, is strongly influenced by local political ideals which the chief will inevitably need to support. The negotiations concerning the level of fire service provided to the community is affected by these political ideals and is very much subject to economic factors. There is little or no opportunity for personnel to transfer between fire departments and therefore cross fertilisation of standards and practices are restricted.

2.3 EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES LEGISLATION

2.3.1. Sex Discrimination Act 1975

The Sex Discrimination Act determines that a woman cannot be treated less favourably than a man by virtue of her sex. Requirements or conditions to which a smaller proportion of women than men can comply or which cannot be justified irrespective of sex of the person are discriminatory.

This Act applies to circumstances where there is not necessarily a contract, ie recruitment procedures, advertising and offers of employment and to access to promotion or to training and other benefits which are not covered by any employment terms. The Act applies to dismissal making it unlawful to discriminate directly and indirectly on grounds of sex.

The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 applies to any working practice that may be detrimental to women, for example; such as age limits and discriminatory recruitment procedures. It should help women to plan their careers around access to working conditions that are compatible with motherhood and child care.

The Act makes indirect discrimination unlawful. A requirement where a smaller proportion of women than men can apply, ie a height restriction could be considered discrimination. A guidance note for employers issued by the Equal Opportunities Commission (appendix 8) explains how this affects both direct and indirect discrimination between genders.

Beechey (1984) offers a view that this Act has a rather negative effect and that making discrimination illegal does not alter the traditional discriminations which are rooted deep in society. The Act has been successful in helping women to counter individual acts of discrimination, but it has not been particularly successful in introducing initiatives to change existing policies and produce positive action.

During the fieldwork the researcher found that fire brigades have introduced positive initiatives in their attempts to train to prepare women for recruitment tests by providing practice sessions. The Sex Discrimination Act does allow such training and especially allows training to be done positively if at any time during the preceding 12 months no or very few women have been engaged in a particular kind of work.

Whilst women cannot now be formally precluded from virtually all occupations there is still a pronounced form of division in the labour market. This is evident in the police force separate policewomen’s departments were abolished following the Sex Discrimination Act as no further distinction could be made on the grounds of sex. However some work involving women and children still continues as a specialist function for women.

2.3.2. The Employment Protection Act 1978

The Employment Protection act 1978 give protection to women’s jobs during pregnancy and confinement. It gives her the right not to be unfairly dismissed because she is pregnant and gives her the right to return to the same job after the child is born and within 29 weeks of the birth. These rights are dependent on the woman having at least two years employment up to the expected date of confinement.

It is noticeable that this legislation does not provide any similar protection for a parent, male or female, caring for a child over 29 weeks of age. Likewise it does not address the problems of parental leave to care for children in either sickness or in health or such issues as flexible working hours.

2.4 HISTORICAL EMPLOYMENT

Traditionally women supported their menfolk in that they kept house and family for them. Because of women’s biological function of bearing children society evolved for them a primary role of producing a family with work as a secondary function. This brought about the conception that a woman’s place is in the home, producing different working experiences for women. This was encouraged by the domestic division of labour and the role society gave to women in bringing up children. (Janeway 1977, Oakley 1981, Beechey & Whitelegg, 1986).

Women’s early work in industrial and professional occupations were curtailed by ecclesiastical and legal dictates. In the early stages of industrialisation women worked mainly in home based industries. agriculture, weaving. spinning and in some factories such as textiles. With the growth of heavy industry, ie steel and railways the proportion of women working dropped and the principle of man’s work became accepted.

There was a moratorium on this view during both the First and the Second World Wars, particularly the Second. When due to the tremendous effort to win the war, sex discrimination in matters of employment almost disappeared. Myrdal & Klein (1968) describes the extent of the effort put into creating the right conditions to encourage and allow women, especially married women, to work. The marriage bar to women working in non-industrial occupations such as the civil service, the police, London County Council and the British Broadcasting Corporation was removed. The Education Act 1944 similarly removed previous restrictions thereby allowing married women to enter the teaching profession.

“During the war no doubt existed in peoples minds about the value of women’s contributions to the national effort. Clearly women were needed and all possible efforts were made by the Government, by local authorities and by employers to enable them to accept jobs....”

Myrdal & Klein (1968) p111

At the end of the war with the return and demobilising of men women stood aside to release jobs for the boys. The nurseries closed and there was a marked tendency to go back to normal.

Jones (1986) explains that women were officially recognised by the police after the First World War. But that in the early years of women in the police force their caring, nurturing and feminine role as “moral guardians” to children and to fellow members of the weaker sex was established. The first women’s patrols were formed in 1919 but women did not have the power of arrest simply because the Police Acts stated that only “fit men” could be sworn it. It was 1922 before the full powers of a sworn constable was conferred on women. Some eight years later in 1930 the pay and conditions for police women were standardised and their main duties were specified. These were dealing with women and children missing, ill or homeless, taking statements from women and children and dealing with women prisoners. This was to set the scene for the next 45 years until the passing of Equal Opportunities Legislation. During this time women police worked in different departments to their male counterparts with their own ranks and promotion procedures.

Women traditionally worked in a limited number of industries and in jobs which could be classed as “women’s work”. Oakley (1981) claims that even if women worked alongside men they invariably carried out less skilled jobs and had lower responsibilities. This is supported by Jones (1986) in her research into the early experiences of women in the police force and by Evetts (1994) and Beechey (1984) claiming that women doctors in hospitals tend to be concentrated in what could be considered as lower status jobs such as anaesthetics, geriatrics and radiology. The reason for this could be that the hierarchial relations that existed between women and men in society and in the family were replicated in the workforce.

“.... men are the employers, managers, top professionals, foremen and skilled workers in our society ....”

Social Trends (1974) P16 cited by Oakley A (1981) p150

2.5 OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION

Traditionally the labour market was split into predominantly male and predominantly female occupations and to some extent women still concentrate in those occupations that were predominantly female. Women can still be excluded from some jobs because the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 still allows employers to discriminate in selection and/or training if sex is a genuine occupational qualification for the job.

In both World Wars women provided a large supply of labour for the jobs that were suddenly considered suitable for women to do. Whilst this allowed a temporary suspension of the notions of a woman’s place it was never considered as anything other than temporary. Even then there was fairly strict occupational segregation in that women were only allowed to work on men’s jobs if there were no men to do the work and only then on different terms and conditions.

2.6 TRADE UNIONS

The Victorian view of a woman was as a wife and a mother. She was considered the focal point of the family and the guardian of domestic virtues. Her responsibilities were to her children and her husband and that this responsibility always came before any work outside of the family. The man was the head of the household and the woman’s role was subordinate to it (Beechey (1984) and Beechey & Whitelegg (1986)).

During the First World War when women moved into engineering and munitions as part of the war effort, employers tried to deskill the jobs in an attempt to allow unskilled women to do the work and to pay them less. Trade Unions, and in particular the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, fought against this in an effort to resist deskilling and to preserve the wage differentials and control over labour processes that skilled men had enjoyed. The unions were active in determining the terms and conditions under which women were allowed to do skilled work and in setting down what should happen to these jobs and to the women at the end of the War. The unions were involved in struggles with both employers and government over the issue of skills being diluted on the premise that they were trying to protect their members interests. However Beechey (1984) suggests that the underlying reason was based on the assumption that women should not be allowed to do the same kind of work as men and that their place was in the home. She uses this to substantiate her claim that trade unions tried to keep women out of the skilled jobs that had up until that time been mens work and that continual attempts to redefine what was skilled work was an essential part of this process of exclusion.

The Police Federation strongly opposed the inclusion of the police force in the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and actively sought exemption from it on the grounds of physical danger to women but Jones (1986) claims that the underlying reason was the belief that police work was not feminine.

“The Federation confidently pronounced that the .... very nature of the duties of a police constable is contrary to all thats finest and best in women ...”

Whittaker B 1979 The Police in Society

Eyre Methuen, London p122

Cited by Jones S (1986) p8

Similar signs of occupational segregation can be found in the way that women were allowed to work in the fire service during the Second World War. Women were used to deliver fuel and equipment and to drive the vehicles but were not permitted to become operationally involved in firefighting.

2.7 SOCIAL CONSTRAINTS

Feminists argue that a woman’s career is disadvantaged by the traditional male working life, where career occupations are generally designed as continuous, providing a single upward route as a way of progressing. This disadvantages women who may have to leave to give birth and bring up young families, often having to adjust to part time work whilst the children are young. The fact that mothers have a responsibility for their children is rarely questioned yet there is little in the way of public child care facilities for them. Many women have two parallel careers , their unpaid work due to their commitments to their family, and their paid jobs.

“.... in analysing work we tend to have a masculine conception of work, we think only of paid work as being work and exclude other kinds of work, eg housework, DIY and voluntary work from our definition ...”

Beechey V & Whitelegg E (eds) 1986 p77

Women’s work patterns differ from men’s in that they have interrupted working histories associated with childbirth and subsequent part time working before returning to normal employment. Young women tend to be treated differently in the education system giving ideological conceptions about what constitutes appropriate work for women. Many problems associated with introducing women into predominantly male dominated work lies in the sexual division of labour in the family and traditional ideology in the way we raise our children. Boys are dressed in blue and girls are dressed in pink. During childhood girls play with dolls and boys are running round playing war.

Nowadays with an average size family and reasonable amenities an average woman could be engaged on tasks necessary for homemaking for a shorter period of her adult life than her predecessor. As society still accepts that it is a woman’s role to bear children and take the main role in caring for and raising them, then this has to be taken into account when considering the effect on women’s employment.

“.... if discrimination against women which still exists in many fields of employment is to be abolished, women must be able to compete with men on equal terms. Amongst these, the ability to make long term plans to pursue a chosen vocation and to offer returns for the time and money invested in their training are important items ....”

Myrdal A & Klein V 1968 p155

There are few jobs that are easy to combine with motherhood. Teaching is an example because the working hours of child and mother are virtually the same and their holidays also coincide. This reaffirms the need for women to have flexibility in their working hours and is supported by Jones (1986) claiming that the practical difficulties encountered by policewomen in combining child rearing with working the same shift pattern as policemen adversely affects their ability to pursue their chosen career.

“.... it has become increasingly important for the police service as well as all organisations employing women to provide career structures both laterally and vertically that do not discriminate against women in any way.”

Bryon D G 1995 p8

2.8 PHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS

Beechley & Whitelegg (1986) claim that among the usual excuses used to describe why women can’t do certain jobs are such comments as “men have an aptitude for mechanical skills” and “ women cannot lift heavy weights”. In considering the first of these they contend that this involves the assumption that this is due to biological reasons and fails to recognise differences between men assuming that men are all the same. It also assumes that all women share the same lack of aptitude. It is more likely that if men have an aptitude this has been developed as a result of childhood learning due to the different opportunities offered to boys as compared with girls. Jones (1986) claims that men over emphasise the importance of physical strength to enable them to perpetuate the argument that women cannot do the job adequately. So excluding them and avoiding having to accept them on equal terms.

Turney (1982) in his report on Equal Opportunities makes comparisons between London Fire Brigade and United States Fire Departments on the issue of women and notes that they lack the physical capabilities of their male counterparts. In doing this he refers to T.L. Doolittle PhD and his work about the physical ability of women to perform as firefighters. This work suggests that strength is related to height because strength is determined by muscle and larger frames have larger muscles.

Women have been perceived as inferior to men and this has principally been due to biological reasons; (Dyer 1982). It was thought that women were too weak to participate in sport and that it would be dangerous for the “weaker sex” (Lenskyj (1984) cited in McPherson, Curtis & Loy (1989) p223). However physically there is little difference between the sexes of pre puberty children (Anstrand 1952, cited in Fox, Bowers & Foss (1988) p.73), this is supported by Wells (1991) who suggests that differences between the sexes are more related to environmental than biological differences. Once full maturity is reached the physiological differences between the sexes are more noticeable and may affect their physical performance. Young adult males are about 10% (5 inches) taller than young women and about 30-40 pounds heavier in body weight, with broader shoulders, narrower hips and larger chest in relation to body size. The average female will have broad hips in relation to the shoulders and waist (Wells 1991).

The difference in strength between the sexes varies according to the muscle group compared. Fox Bowers & Foss (1989) found that women are weaker than men in the chest, arms and shoulders but are stronger in the legs. They suggest that this may be related to the fact that both sexes tend to use their legs for similar functions ie walking, standing, running and climbing stairs. In society as a whole women tend not to use their upper limb muscles to the same extent or for the same purpose as men. However, Wells (1991) found that when strength is measured relative to body mass there is no significant difference in the innate strength of muscle tissue. Wells (1991) has noted that sporting performance differences between adult males and females have reduced to less than 10% and are continuing to decline. Fox, Bowers & Foss (1989) agree that the difference between males and females is reducing and the closest comparison is in swimming.

In the case of the police the Sex Discrimination Act allowed specific exemptions to be made to the Police Act 1964, Jones (1986) and required that men and women officers would not be treated differently except in relation to height. This exemption was seen as protective to women as the average height of a woman is less than the average height of a man. Jones (1986) contends that the inclusion of this exemption was a recognition of the possibility of future discrimination and suggests that it is an example of positive action. The height requirements are 172 cm for men and 162 cm for women. There appears to be no objective reasoning to support these measurements and it seems to be based on an assumption (professional opinion from within the police) that shorter men lack the necessary air of authority. Jones (1986) maintains that this selects out and the restriction should be related to an ability to do the job and not be presumed to be related to qualitative aspects of performance which have not been objectively analysed.

The Fire Services Appointment & Promotion Regulations stipulate that a person shall be not less than 1.68m and not taller than 1.93m. There seems to be no justifiable argument to support these measurements which are the same for men and women although they discriminate against women whose average height is significantly lower than mens. The arguments used tend to centre around teamwork and safety; where it is considered beneficial for persons to be of similar heights when carrying loads and, the use of equipment and design of the standard fire appliance with ladders carried on the roof. It is interesting to note that the same document recommends that in certain circumstances, ie where there are recruitment difficulties, retained firefighters could be employed who did not meet the minimum height. American fire services have removed all reference to height in their appointment criteria, however, this was due to the influence of federal laws rather than direct re-evaluation of the need.

2.9 CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS

Some organisations that are traditionally male dominated have over time developed a culture that acts against the integration of women. Myrdall & Klein (1968) describes it as a pattern of male superiority, maintaining that in some instances it is so strong that the pretence of female weakness has to be kept up and that it is not a real belief that men are superior but an acceptance that the masculine illusion of it must be maintained.,

Bryon (1995) talks about the predominant male being required to achieve and adds that the chauvinistic view that men are more capable than women in achieving can lead to the formation of a male preserve that excludes women. He talks about providing a balance between need and what is fair and just and that the police force has developed a culture that is male dominated and orientated, which he claims has been shown to discriminate against women in diminishing their role.

2.10 SUMMARY

Historically women have worked in different occupations to men and those occupations have tended to be softer requiring less physical effort. Women’s work patterns have been different from those of men in that a woman’s role in bringing up a family have caused them to take breaks from their work. This has been reflected in more women doing part time work or seeking careers that allow them to work close to their family or have hours compatible with school times.

Society has produced a stereotype for men and women which has been perpetuated through the generations by the way in which children are raised and educated. This has led to beliefs that women are a weaker sex which are not totally supported by biological and physical evidence. Young boys and girls develop at similar rates with similar levels of physical performance, but the gap widens after puberty. This gap is now reducing as more women shed the traditional shackles of society, continuing to participate in sport and fitness activities and entering jobs that require physical ability.

Women’s ability to succeed in the heavier jobs, that where traditionally the preserve of men, was proved during the war years when legal restrictions against them were removed. However even during this period there was a degree of segregation in the allocation of jobs to women.

The introduction of equal opportunities legislation paved the way for women to enter “men’s” employment but it has not removed all the barriers, particularly the traditional views of society concerning a woman’s role. Loop holes in the legislation has allowed discrimination to continue particularly in services such as the police and fire service where height has remained an issue.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH RATIONALE

3.1.1 Why Questionnaires?

Hoinville and Jowell (1978), cited in Cohen and Manion (1982), claim that the response levels to questionnaires are often equal to interviews. Despite this, Cohen and Manion (1982), claim that the rate of return is poor, although the number of respondents that can be reached may be extensive and the reliability of the responses are often considered fair. An expected response rate of 40% is suggested by Cohen and Manion (1982) although Hoinville and Jowell (1978) claim response rates of 70% to 80% as being possible. The researcher found that the response rates to questionnaire distributed between the two groups; those inside the fire service and those outside the fire service were 41% and 72% respectively. However then these groups were further subdivided a response rate as low as 16% was recorded for employed persons outside the fire service. Bell (1995) comments that questionnaires are a good way of collecting information quickly and are relatively cheap to administer. This along with the cheapness and the fact that questionnaires are not time consuming, make questionnaires suitable to some aspects of the present study.

3.1.2 The Questionnaire Format

The questionnaires were compiled to examine the views and experiences of the respondents in three areas identified in the literature review and during pilot investigations; see 3.2.. They were designed by the researcher and whilst addressing the same subject areas were produced in two formats to make them suitable to be answered by persons employed as firefighters and those who were not members of fire brigades.

As recommended by Hoinville and Jowell (1978), cited in Cohen and Manion (1982), questionnaires need to be inviting to the respondent, yet gather the data required. Therefore the initial section should be simple and have high interest value. This was done by the use of questions that established the respondents present situations and invited some comments and participation (questions 1 to 3, appendices 1 and 3).

The second section (questions 4 to 6, appendices 1 and 3) follows the recommendation of Hoinville and Jowell (1978), cited in Cohen and Manion (1982), Bell (1995) with the involvement of more difficult questions encouraging the respondents to seriously consider the social implications surrounding the decision of a woman to become a firefighter. The third section (questions 7 to 9, appendices 1 and 3) extended this by asking respondents to consider the equality value of publicity and recruitment literature.

The questions in both these sections are open in that they offer a consideration of the different groups or factors that may have influence and also leave space for comments. This direct format was chosen as it is simple, easy and inviting to the respondent, yet gathers the information that is required. It also limits the opportunity for misunderstanding or misleading the respondent, while providing suitable alternative answers (Selltix, Wrightsman and Cook (1976), cited in Cohen and Mansion (1982)).

The final section (questions 9 to 13, appendices 1 and 3), returned to the use of simple questions. Maintaining interest by examining qualities and activities, requiring answers in either a tick box or ranking format, Youngman (1986) cited and Bell (1995).

3.1.3 Why Interviews?

Tuckman (1972), cited in Cohen and Mansion (1982), describes an interview as providing access to what is “inside a person’s head”. Cohen and Mansion (1982) claim that as it involves direct verbal interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee it has advantages over questionnaires where the respondent is required to record a response to a set of questions. Moser & Kalton (1971) cited in Bell (1995) describe the interview as “a conversation between interviewer and respondent with the purpose of eliciting certain information from the respondent”. The rate of return is considered to be good although the number of interviewees that can be reached will tend to be less and the overall reliability of the responses are often considered limited. The opportunities that interviews allow for response keying and probing and to add substance to the questionnaire responses; Bell (1995), make interviews a suitable research tool in the research of this subject.

3.1.4 The Interview Format

The interviews were structured in such a manner to determine the views of a random selection of women employed as firefighters in each of the participating brigades. As recommended by Kerlinger (1970), cited in Cohen and Manion (1982), the interviews were used to follow up some of the responses to the questionnaires and to go deeper into the reasons for some responses. The structured interview was chosen, because as Cohen and Mansion (1982) suggest it is most frequently used as a suitable method of gathering research information and according to Bell (1995) is easier to use by persons unused to, or unfamiliar with conducting research interviews.

As recommended by Kerlinger (1970), cited in Cohen and Mansion (1982), a mixture of fixed alternative items and open-ended items were used. The former to provide uniformity of measurement and reliability and the latter to avoid irritability of the respondent and put a minimum of restraint on the respondent’s answers. Therefore allowing the interviewer to probe and narrow down the response. Kitwood (1977), cited in Cohen and Manion (1982), explains that an interviewer should establish rapport and be systematic in approach. A format (appendix 6) was designed by the researcher to provide continuity in each of the interviews. Questions were devised to cover the parameters of the research, accepting that not all of them would need to be answered in every interview.

As in the questionnaires, leading and irritating questions were avoided to encourage accurate, honest answers and open participation; Cohen and Manion (1982) Bell (1995).

3.2 THE PILOT INVESTIGATION

A pilot investigation was conducted amongst a small group of volunteers, representative of the two groups that would be the subjects of the research. This was done to test the style and content of the questionnaires and the interview format, to ensure that the questions were clear and unambiguous; Bell (1995). As a result some of the questions were re-written or re-phrased to provide consistency and easier compilation of the data.

Participants in the pilot interviews responded well to questioning and discussion. The use of a dictaphone was not recognised as a bar to free and open discussion, although this was evident during early interviews in the research itself, see 3.4. A more in depth analysis of the pilot investigation may have indicated this problem, allowing the researcher to amend the interview questions to enable better production of written records. Similarly further refinement of the interview questions and format would have permitted a quantifiable in depth analysis of the interviews resulting in better use of the data collected.

The pilot study complimented that literature review confirming the sometimes opposing and complimentary social and physical constraints that women face in modern society and in non-traditional work; giving justification to the present study. It also highlighted the lack of information available to inform women about and attract them to the fire service. A fact that was also identified by Bucke (1994). The researcher embraced the opportunity to undertake further resesarch on this subject within this study.

3.3 THE SAMPLE

A cross-sectional sample of voluntary subjects from the United Kingdom and the United States of America were selected for the study. This consisted of two hundred and seventy subjects in total divided into two groups. The first being school, college, university and employable persons not employed by fire brigades. The second group being firefighters currently employed in fire brigades. Seven fire brigades were contacted, three in the UK and five in the USA. Of these two in the UK and three in the USA volunteered to participate in the study. These brigades were contacted due to the number of women firefighters employed on operational duties.

Each subject completed a questionnaire or undertook an interview providing necessary information for the study. The questionnaires and the proforma for the interviews were compiled, prepared and distributed by the researcher. Subjects completing the questionnaires did so independently and with no direct contact with the researcher. All interviews were undertaken on a personal basis by the researcher.

3.3 QUESTIONNAIRES

3.3.1 Group one (non fire brigade personnel)

One hundred and fifty questionnaires were distributed among two secondary schools, two further education colleges, three universities and a selection of employed groups in the United Kingdom. 72% of these were correctly completed and returned. The returned questionnaires were grouped according to the nature of their location, viz university, college, school or employed and not by age. Each question was then broken down to determine answers in terms of percentages; these results were then compiled and are presented in Chapter Four.

3.3.2 Group two (fire brigade personnel)

Eighty questionnaires were distributed to the two fire brigades in the United Kingdom and three fire departments in the United States of America. The returned questionnaires (42%) were examined, the percentages for each question were determined and are presented in Chapter Four.

3.4 INTERVIEWS

Interviews were carried out with women firefighters in the participating fire brigades and fire departments. These were carried out as formal interviews with preplanned questions (as discussed in research rationale section 3.1.4) and as informal discussions “around the mess table” with their male counterparts. A dictaphone was initially used in early interviews but as it became apparent that interviewees were uncomfortable with it , answers were recorded in written format in later interviews. Notes were made during informal discussions and written up immediately afterwards. Through the use of content analysis the outcomes of the interviews and discussions were assessed.

 4. RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

One hundred and fifty questionnaires were distributed to universities, colleges, schools and small businesses (see appendix 1), of which one hundred and eight were returned (a sample of which can be seen in appendix 2). Eighty questionnaires were distributed to fire brigades in the United Kingdom and the United States of America (see appendix 3), of which thirty four were returned (a sample of which can be seen in appendix 4). The results from the questionnaires have been gathered and calculated in terms of percentages as seen on the independent record sheets (see appendix 5a - h). The results section will highlight the principal findings from the responses from each category for each of the questions.

Interviews were carried out with a total of 37 subjects in fire brigades in the United Kingdom and the United States of America (a formulated sample of which can be seen in appendix 6). The interviewees were all serving firefighters of both sexes ranging in rank from firefighter to chief fire officer. The findings from the interviews have been gathered, divided into positive and negative comments and where appropriate calculated in terms of percentages (see appendix 7). The results from the questionnaires and the interviews will be analysed and discussed in the next chapter.

The complexity of the results prevented them from being displayed graphically, therefore they have been presented either in a tabulated format or as charts. Only the first three choices of personal qualities of a firefighter have been listed, (see question 9 appendix 1 and question 10 appendix 3) as have the first three choices given as reasons in response to questions three and five (see appendix 1). It is important to note that whilst a comparison between the brigades and university, college, school and business can be made this is not the purpose of the present study. The results have merely been integrated for ease of clarity and reading.

4.2 The Results of the Questionnaires

4.2.1 Non Fire Brigade Questionnaires

4.2.1.1 Questions 2, 3, 4 and 5

The results for questions 2, 3, 4 and 5 are presented in table 1, along with the questions and the list of responses (sample of questionnaires in appendix 2).

Table 1 The Fire Service as a Career

Q.2. Would/have you considered the Fire Service as a career ?

Q.3. Why/why not ?

Q.4. Do you consider the Fire Service a suitable career for a woman ?

Q.5. Why/why not ?

University Students

Forty six university students returned the questionnaires, 87% (40) which were women. 30% (14) of students either have or would consider a career in the fire service and 97% (45) of them consider it a suitable job for a woman. In response to question three 50% (23) thought that women could not achieve the physical standards. 24% (11) didn’t know much about the fire service and 20% (9) thought that they would enjoy the challenge of the job. the remaining 6% (3) did not answer this question.

Women were thought to be equally as capable of being firefighters as men by 67% (31) of the students.10% (5) thought that women were not strong enough whilst 8% (3) thought women are more caring than men. 13% (6) did not answer this question and 2% (1 person) thought that the fire service offered good career prospects.

College Students

Twenty five questionnaires were returned by college students, all but one were completed by women. The fire service has or would be considered as a career by 12% (3) of the students and 96% (24) thought it an appropriate career for a woman. The one that did not think it a suitable career for a women was male. In response to question three 36% (9) thought that women should not be firefighters as they are afraid of fire. 20% (5) claimed not to know enough about the fire service and 16% (4) thought that women couldn’t meet the physical standards. 12% (3) thought the job too physically demanding and the same number thought they would enjoy the challenge and physical work. 4% (1) gave male dominated workforce as reasons for not wanting to be a firefighter. Women are considered to be equally capable of being firefighters as men by 80% (20) college students. 12% (3) thought that women were not strong enough and 8% (2) thought that women could be firefighters as they are more caring than men.

Secondary School Pupils

Thirty one questionnaires all completed by women were returned by secondary school pupils. 39% (12) of these would consider the fire service as a career and 93% (29) of them thought that it was a job for women. In response to question three 22% (7) of secondary school pupils considered that women would enjoy the challenge and physical aspects of firefighting. 22% (7) thought that women would be afraid of fire and 20% (6) thought it a male dominated workforce. 13% (4) claimed not to know much about a career in the fire service. 7% (2) thought it too physically demanding and the remaining 16% (5) had not yet given their future careers much thought.. Women are considered equally as capable as men by 77% (24) of secondary school pupils. 16% (5) thought that women are not strong enough and 7% (2) thought that the service had been male dominated for too long.

Employed Persons

The lack of response from this group was disappointing with only 5 out of 30 questionnaires returned. Of the five employed persons who returned the questionnaires 80% (4) of them were women. 20% (1) of these either have or would consider a career in the fire service and 40% (2) thought that the service was a suitable job for a woman. In response to question three 60% (3) considered the fire service to be a man’s job or that it was a male dominated workforce. 20% (1) thought that the work of a firefighter was too physically demanding for women and 20% (1) didn’t know much about the fire service. Women were not considered strong enough to be firefighters by 60% (3) of respondents. 40% (2) thought that women were equally capable of being firefighters as men.

4.2:1.2 Question 6

The results of question 6 are presented in Table 2, along with the question.

Table 2 Views of Friends and Relatives

Q.6. If you joined the fire brigade what do you think would be the views of your:

a) parents/guardians ?

b) partners ?

c) friends ?

University Student

46% (21) of respondents thought parents would have mixed views about their daughter joining the fire service whereas 28% (13) thought parents would be positive and 13% (6) would be negative, 5% (2) thought their parents would be very negative and 8% (4) thought they would be very positive.

Partners would have mixed views in 40% (18) of cases, 34% (16) thought they would be positive and 6% (3) thought they would be very positive. Of the respondents 17% (8) thought their partners would be slightly negative whilst 3% (1) were of the opinion that they would be very negative. Friends were considered to be more positive with 43% (20) indicating they would be positive, 7% (3) very positive and 41% (19) would have mixed views, 9% (4) thought their friends would be slightly negative about it.

College Students

Respondents considered that 32% (8) of parents would be positive and 32% (8) would have mixed views. 20% (5) would be very positive and 16% (4) slightly negative. When indicating how they thought their partners would react 56% (14) indicated that partners would have mixed views, 16% (4) positive and 8% (2) very positive. It was thought that 16% (4) would be slightly negative with 4% (1) being very negative. The views of friends were recorded as 44% (11) having

mixed views, 32% (8) being positive and 12% (3) very positive, 12% (3) were recorded as being slightly negative.

Secondary School Pupils

 Secondary school pupils thought that 35% (11) of their parents would be positive and 26% (8) would be very positive. 19% (6) thought that their parents would have mixed views, with 16% (5) indicating slightly negative views and 4% (1) very negative.

These pupils thought their partners would be positive in 30% (9) of cases with 15% (5) being very positive. Mixed views were anticipated in 19% (6) of replies, 27% (8) being slightly negative and 9% (3) very negative. Friends were expected to be positive by 39% (12) and to have mixed views by 39% (12). 19% (6) thought their friends would be very positive and 3% (1) recorded a view of slightly negative.

Employed Persons 

Parents and friends would be positive in 40% (2) of replies and 40% (2) would have mixed views. 20% (1) thought parents and friends would be very negative. Partners were expected to be very negative by 40% (2), have mixed views by 40% (2) and be positive by 20% (1) of respondents.

4.2:1.3. Questions 7 and 8

The percentages for questions 7 and 8 are presented in Table 3, alongside the questions.

Table 3 Information about the Fire Service

Q.7. Do you think publicity for a career in the Fire Service is aimed towards:

a) Males?

b) Females?

c) Both?

Q.8. Do you think there should be more publicity?

68% to 100% of respondents from the four categories were of the opinion that publicity about the fire service as a career was aimed at males. none of them thought it was directed at females but 7% - 32% thought the publicity was aimed towards both male and female. A high percentage thought that there should be more information available, 60%- 100% whereas 7% - 40% across the four categories were of the opinion that more publicity was not necessary.

4.2:1.4 Question 9

Table 4 presents the percentages of the three most favoured choice of qualities firefighter needs.

The quality consistently placed highest of the first choice was “the ability to think quickly” with between 40% and 68% of all respondents favouring it. Rated second highest amongst first choice was “fitness” favoured by between 16% and 40% of respondents.

Rated highest amongst the second choice was “common sense” by between 28% and 40% of replies and second in this choice was “physical strength” favoured by 26% of university students and 24% of college students, 26% of school pupils placed “ability to think quickly” next and 40% of employed persons choice “fitness”.

Highest place in the third choice was less decisive, university students and school pupils rated “fitness” first with 37% and 29% respectively. 44% of college students considered “common sense” most important whilst employed persons were split between five qualities: “caring, fitness, sympathetic, physical strength and ability to think quickly”, each favoured by 20%.

Table 4 The Qualities required of a Firefighter

Q.9. What qualities do you think a firefighter needs?

(Please indicate in order of choice ie 1 for 1st., 2 for 2

4.2:1.5

Questions 10, 11 and 13

The percentages for questions 10, 11 and 13 are presented in Table 5, alongside the questions.

Table 5 Physical Fitness and Firefighting

Q.10. Do you consider the job of firefighter to be of a physical nature?

Q.11 How often do you carry out physical activity?

Q.13 Do you think you are physically fit to be a firefighter?

All classes overwhelmingly considered that firefighting was a physical job. The majority of respondents engaged in physical activity once a week, 16% - 80% or more regularly, 20% - 80%, but with the exception of secondary school children 55% (17) most of them considered themselves not physically fit enough to be a firefighter 45% - 100%.

4.2.2 Questionnaires Completed by Firefighters

4.2.2.1 Question 1

The findings of reasons women joined the fire service are presented in Table 6. The reasons listed are those which appeared to be the most common from all the respondents.

Table 6. Reasons for choosing the Fire Service as a career

Preferred a non-traditional job.

Career opportunities.

Pay and conditions.

Excitement and challenge.

Duty system.

4.2.2.2 Questions 2 and 3

The results of questions 2 and 3 are presented in Table 7, along with the questions and the list of responses.

Table 7. Views of relatives and friends

Q.2. How was this decision received by your:

a) Family?

b) Partners?

Q.3. What was the response from your friends:

a) women?

b) men?

U.K. Fire Brigades

50% (4) of respondents indicated that their parents were positive about their joining the fire service with 12.5% (1) being very positive and 12.5% (1) said that their parents had mixed views. 25% (2) were slightly negative. Their partners were less supportive 25% (2) being slightly negative, 37.5% (3) having mixed feelings with 25% (2) being positive and 12.5% (1) very positive. In response to question 3, 25% (2) said their women friends were very positive whilst none of their men friends were. 37.5% (3) of men and women friends were positive with 37.5% (3) of men and 25% (2) of women friends had mixed feelings. None of these firefighters thought that any of their friends or relatives were very negative.

San Diego Fire Department

Parents were considered to be positive by 75% (9) of those who replied and 16.5% (2) said they had mixed views 8.5% (1) was slightly negative. Their partners were thought to be very positive by 8.5% (1) with 33.5% (4) claiming their partners were positive and 58% (7) having mixed views. Women friends were said to have mixed views by 25% (3) of respondents, with 66.5% (8) being positive and 8.5% (1) very positive. Their men friends were positive in 25% (3) of replies and 41.5% (5) said they had mixed views and 33.5% (4) were slightly negative. Like their UK counterparts none of the respondents experienced very negative views from their friends or relatives.

Louisville Fire Department

Parents were very positive about their daughters joining the fire service, said 50% (3) of respondents and 16% (1) said their parents had been positive. 34% (2) had mixed views about it. Their partners were positive in 33% (2) of replies and 67% (4) had mixed views. Women friends were very positive said 33% (2) whilst 50% (3) said they were very positive. 17% (1) indicated that their women friends had mixed views. 33% (2) of men friends were said to be positive with 17% (1) having mixed views and 50% (3) slightly negative. All the respondents indicated that none of their friends or relatives had displayed any very negative views about their joining the fire service.

Fairfax County Fire Department

Respondents indicated that 50% (4) of parents were very positive, with 25% (2) being positive and the remainder having mixed feelings. Partners were equally divided between having mixed feelings, being slightly negative about their wives/girlfriends being firefighters. Women friends were very positive in 66% (5) of cases and 34% (3) had mixed views, 50% (4) of men friends had mixed views, 25% (2) were positive but 25% (2) were very negative.

4.2:2.3 Question 4

The percentages for question 4 are presented in Table 8 alongside the question.

Table 8. Difficulties experienced by Women Firefighters

Q.4. Did you encounter any difficulties during:

a) the appointment/selection process?

b) Training ?

c) On the watch/station?

UK Fire Brigades

Of the women firefighters that responded 37% (3) experienced difficulties during the appointment and selection process. The percentage that encountered difficulty during training and on the fire station was higher at 62% (5) and 75% (6) respectively.

San Diego Fire Department

17% (2) of respondents encountered difficulties during the appointment and selection process and 42%(5) experienced difficulties during training. Difficulties were encountered by 59% (7) of women firefighters on the fire station.

Louisville Fire Department

Difficulties during appointment and selection were encountered by 16% (1) of women firefighters with 50% (3) finding difficulties during training. 66% (4) of them experienced difficulties on the fire station.

Fairfax County Fire Department 

50% (4) of replies indicated that difficulties were experienced during the appointment and selection process. Difficulties in training were commented on by 75% (6) of women and 50% (4) of them experienced problems on the fire station.

4.2:2.4 Questions 5, 6 and 7

The results of questions 5, 6 and 7 are presented in Table 9, alongside the questions.

Table 9 Information about the fire service.

Q.5. Where did you obtain information regarding the fire service prior to your applying?

Q.6. Do you think publicity for a career in the fire service is aimed towards:

a) Males?

b) Females?

c) Both?

Q.7. Do you think there should be more publicity?

UK Fire Brigades 

63% (5) of respondents indicated that they had obtained information about the fire service from friends and relatives with 25% (2) gaining some information from women’s only clubs and 12% (1) from advertisements. Publicity information was thought to be aimed at males by 50% (4) with the remainder thinking that both sexes were targeted. 87% (7) of respondents thought that there should be more publicity available, 13% (1) did not answer the question.

San Diego Fire Department 

Friends and relatives were the source of information for 75% (9) of respondents, 9% (1) had got information from their teachers with 8% (1) seeing advertisements and 8% (1) picking up recruitment information at women’s club and gyms. Publicity material was targeting both sexes according to 67% (8) of replies with 33% (4) of the opinion that it was aimed at men only. 90% (11) of respondents thought that there should be more publicity material.

Louisville Fire Department 

66% (4) cited friends and relatives as the main source of their information and 17% (1) said they had influenced by advertisements. Recruitment information/packages in women’s sports clubs had been the source for 20% (1). The publicity available was aimed at males thought 83% (5) of respondents with 17% (1) claiming that both sexes were targeted. All respondents wanted more information available.

Fairfax County Fire Department 

Information about a career in the fire service came from friends and relatives according to 63% (9) of respondents, whereas 25% (2) gained their information from their teachers. 12% (1) saw recruitment literature in women only sports clubs. Publicity was aimed at both sexes indicated the 75% (6) of respondents who answered this question with the same 75% (6) asking for more publicity.

4.2:2.5 Questions 8. 9 and 13 

The results of questions 8. 9 and 13 are presented in table 10 along with the questions.

Table 10. The Equality of Women as Firefighters 

Q.8. Do you consider that you are treated as an equal in every respect to other firefighters?

Q.9. If not please explain.

Q.13. Have your views changed since joining the fire service or whether firefighting is a suitable career for a woman?

	Q.8. Yes	No	Q.13 Yes	No
UKFBs SDFD LFD FCFD	50% 42% 100% 50%	50% 58% - 50%	38% 58% 34% 75%	Q 62% 42% 66% 25%
Question 9. Comments
Chauvinistic attitudes Lack of privacy Poor fitting uniform Continually having to prove ourselves

There were fairly equally divided feelings on the subject of being equally treated with the exception of women in Louisville Fire Department where all of them thought they were treated as equals. The most popular causes for concern were: male chauvinistic attitudes, lack of privacy, poor fitting uniform and continually having to prove that women were capable of being firefighters.

Less women in UK fire brigades and Louisville Fire Department had changed their views since joining the fire service than their counterparts in San Diego, 38% (2) and 34% (4) respectively and Fairfax County 75% (6).

4.2:2.6 Question 10 

Table 11 presents the percentages of the three most favoured choice of personal qualities a firefighter needs.

The choice of qualities was not an unanimous as those made by persons not in the fire service. ‘Caring’ was a quality placed highest of the first choice by 2 fire brigades with the other two placing ‘commitment’ and ‘common sense’ highest. Rated second highest of the first choices was ‘fitness’ by 3 brigades with the other choosing ‘common sense’.

The highest placed quality amongst the second choice was ‘common sense’ by 50% (4) of respondents from UKFBs with ‘ability to think quickly’ chosen by 50% (3) of Louisville firefighters, 25% (3) of San Diego women indicated ‘caring’ as desirable quality and 25% (2) Fairfax County chose ‘fitness’. Second option was ‘fitness’ by UK and San Diego with Louisville opting for ‘caring’ and Fairfax County choosing ‘ability to think quickly’.

Women firefighters from Fairfax County placed ‘common sense’ the highest quality of their third choice with the other three favouring ‘fitness’.

Table 11. The Personal Qualities of Firefighter

Q.10. What personal qualities do you think a firefighter needs?

4.2.2.7 Questions 11 and 12 

All respondents were unanimous in their view that the job of a firefighter was a physical one and in all but one instance they carried out physical activities and training several times a week. The one variant engaging in physical activity or training once a week.

4.3 Results of the Interviews 

Semi structured interviews using a mixture of open and closed questions were carried out. Comprehensive details of the questions used can be seen in the interview master sheet (see appendix 6). The questions were used to maintain consistency and continuity of the interviews although not every interviewee was able to answer all of the questions.

Content analysis was completed on each of the interviews. The number of questions used and the complexity of the responses given prevent the results from being graphically illustrated or realistically presented in tabulated format. The results of the content analysis indicating the most commonly repeated responses are shown in the interview content record (see appendix 7). These will be analysed and discussed in Chapter Four.

4.4 Comparisons 

Before analysing and discussing these results there is a benefit in making some comparisons between the replies from those already in the fire service and the replies from groups outside of the fire service. Where appropriate questions were designed to provide answers to similar subject matter to enable this comparison to be made.

4.4.1 Tables 1 and 6 

The most popular reasons women gave for joining the fire service were:-

- preference for a non traditional job

- career opportunities

- pay and conditions

- excitement and challenge

- duty systems

Of the responses from persons outside of the fire service the only common area was:

- excitement and challenge

the other comments being negative or reasons for not joining the fire service

- male dominated workforce, job for men

- too physically demanding

- little known about the fire service as a career

- unable to meet physical standards

- afraid of fire

4.4.2 Tables 2 and 7 

Most women firefighters found that their family had been positive about or very positive about their career choice. With the exception of university the other groups outside of the fire service expected a similar reaction from their parents.

The experiences of firefighters when asked about the views of their partners was similar to the responses non-firefighters expected they would get in similar circumstances. With the exception of employed persons who tended to expect a more negative view.

Friends either were or expected to be positive but existing firefighters found that male friends would generally have mixed or negative views.

4.4.3 Tables 4 and 11 - Qualities of a Firefighter 

Most important quality was “the ability to think quickly”. This was favoured by most students and school pupils with fitness as next favoured option. However, employed persons outside the fire service rated fitness. physical strength and ability to think quickly equally important.

Firefighters were more divided between common sense, caring and commitment. Groups outside of the fire service were equally agreed when asked what was the second most important quality choosing common sense and physical strength and fitness as essential qualities. Firefighters agreed with fitness and common sense but physical strength was not rated so important.

All groups both inside and outside the fire service tended to place fitness and physical strength as the third most important quality.

5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.

5.1 PREFACE 

The results of the questionnaires completed by firefighters and by persons not employed by fire brigades will be analysed and compared with the results of the interviews. These will be discussed in relation to social and physical contexts.

5.2 FIREFIGHTING AS A CAREER FOR WOMEN.

As can be seen in Figure 1, Page 38 Chapter 3, 95% (53) of students and school children thought that firefighting was a suitable career for women, however, only 26% (15) of them indicated that they would consider following such a career. This conflicted with 60% (3) of persons who were already employed, albeit outside of the fire service, who did not think that it was a job that women should do and similarly 80% (4) would not entertain a career move towards the fire service. In fact some were vehemently opposed to the concept of women performing such duties citing lack of physical strength as the main reason.

Women are equally as capable as men was suggested as the reason women should be allowed to join the fire service by 73% (44) of students and pupils (Figure 1 Page 38 Question 3). However, a large number of young women suggested that as they had been brought up in a non traditional environment they naturally tended towards a non traditional vocation. This view was supported by the comments of women already serving as firefighters during the interviews.

“I had a non traditional upbringing in that when other girls had dolls to play with I was given toy trucks and softball. You could say that I was not socially cast in the traditional girl-women role”.

A Woman Firefighter - Louisville Fire Department

Reasons why students and other workers had not considered a career as a firefighter varied. The following are the most common reasons:-

Male dominated workforce or job for men was given by 25% (27) of those questioned, however this was the reason given by 80% (4) of persons already working in other employment (Figure 1 Page 38 Question 3).

14% (15) claimed to know very little about the fire service and this is further commented on later when analysing Figures 3 and 8.

Too physically demanding and cannot meet the physical standards was the decision of 23% (25). Whilst 15% (16) were afraid of fire, this was supported by women firefighters during the interviews when asked why more women don’t apply to be firefighters.

“Most women are afraid of fire, women do not want to go into a burning building.”

Women Firefighters - San Diego Fire Department

Of those women who indicated an interest in the fire service 11% (10) said that they would be attracted by the challenge.

When compared with the reasons serving women firefighters gave for joining the fire service some similarities appear (See Table 1 Page 49). Here the preference of a non traditional job and the challenge of an exciting job are given as two of the five most common reasons. The other three most common reasons , career opportunities, pay and conditions and duty systems are not reflected in any of the replies made by non serving respondents. This may be due to lack of information about these points or a perceived lack of importance amongst young people.

“Perhaps we don’t sell the benefits well enough, things like equal pay, promotion prospects, duty systems and quality time off with the family”

Minority Recruitment Officer, Louisville, Kentucky.

5.3 VIEWS OF FRIENDS AND RELATIVES.

Parents and guardians were generally found to be more supportive amongst firefighters than those outside the fire service with 70% (24) of firefighters stating that their parents had been positive or very positive and 30% (11) having mixed or negative views. (See Figure 6 Page 50). Whereas the other groups thought 47% (51) of parents would be positive or very positive and 33% (36) would have mixed or negative views. (See Figure 2 Page 42).

“Family saw it as nothing different to things I had done in the past because I had always done non traditional jobs. My father hated me being a bodybuilder but he was okay about the fire department “

A Woman Firefighter - San Diego Fire Department

“Parents were apprehensive at first but supported me and are now very proud of my achievements”

A Woman Firefighter, Louisville Fire department

“My children were positive but slightly embarrassed, my parents, brothers and sisters were proud and supportive and encouraged me”.

A Woman Firefighter, United Kingdom Fire Brigade

Partners were less supportive with most firefighters 69% (24) experiencing mixed or negative views from their partners and only 31% (10) being positive or very positive about their partner being a firefighter. (See Figure 6 Page 50).

“My boyfriend supported me but was never really sure about it, we since split up and I married a firefighter”.

A Woman Firefighter, Louisville Fire Department.

“Husband sometime has problems because I only have men workmates”.

A Sergeant, Fire Prevention, Louisville Fire Department.

“He was not too pleased about it because he was concerned about me working with a lot of men but he’s okay with it now”

A Woman Firefighter, Fairfax County Fire Department.

“He was not happy with me staying at the fire station with men, although he is a firefighter. We got divorced because he couldn’t hack it”.

A Lieutenant. Fairfax County Fire Department

“My husband thought it was a good idea to start with, but when he realised how much I enjoyed it and the attention I got from relatives, friends and the public, he became very jealous,we have since separated”.

A Woman Firefighter, United Kingdom Fire Brigade

Of the 42 women firefighters who were interviewed or returned questionnaires 14 had suffered a failed marriage or serious relationship which they claimed was due to them being a firefighter. One woman firefighter spoke of the pressure on her marriage once her husband learned of the ill-treatment she was receiving from male firefighters. Whilst her marriage had survived she claimed that others had failed for similar reasons.

During an interview with Chief Mary Beth Michos of Prince William County Fire Department the subject of personal sacrifices was discussed. Chief Beth indicated that not one woman fire chief’s marriage had survived due, she thought, to the personal sacrifices women had to make to succeed in a male environment.

When considering these figures it is important to realise that these failed relationships are those that the researcher was made aware of and that there were also some women who were not in a relationship. Whether this indicates a particular feature of the interaction between long term relationships and the woman being firefighter is worthy of further study. Any future study may wish to consider the personality traits of those women who have been part of a failed relationship in their quest to be successful firefighters. It may reveal a personality that could be tested for during interviews.

The experience of some women firefighters was similarly replicated in the views non fire service respondents thought their partners would have if they became firefighters. (See Figure 2 Page 42). 68% (73) thought their partners would be negative or have mixed views with 32% (35) thinking their partners would be positive or very positive about it.

“Would not like me to have a full time job in a male dominated workplace”.

A Woman in manual employment.

“My partner would be concerned for my safety and about me working in a male environment”.

University Students

These comments were made by young women in responding to the questionnaires. The researcher did not have the opportunity to further question the respondents or to seek verification with the partners and acknowledges the limitations of the information. However it does provide a useful comparison with the experiences of women firefighters and does equate to the views expressed by the men who responded to questionnaires, and the male firefighters interviewed.

Friends were considered to be fairly evenly divided by non fire service respondents, 48% (52) thinking they would be positive or very positive, and 52% (56) having mixed or negative views. (See Figure 2 Page 42). Concerns for safety was the most common reason given and this extended across all aspects of the respondents experiences. This experience was replicated in the responses from women firefighters, however, they were able to break this down further into the views of men and women friends with a noticeable difference (See Figure 6 Page 50). Women friends were considerably more supportive with 70% (24) being either positive or very positive compared with 29% (10) of male friends.

“Even after five years it still remains the main topic of conversation amongst my women friends but the men are usually surprised when they hear what I do”

Woman Firefighter, United Kingdom Fire Brigade

“Men seem very impressed or very intimidated”.

Woman Firefighter, Louisville Fire Department

“Why do you want to do a man’s job? was the usual comment I got”.

Woman Firefighter, Fairfax County Fire Department

Women in the main tend to be supportive of their women friends and whilst they often express concern for safety, are quite proud of their achievements. The indications are that men have problems in coming to terms with women, whether it be friends or partners seeking employment as firefighters.

“Men seem to think that women can’t have a dirty job and still be feminine - which destroys their feminine view of women”.

Woman Firefighter Sergeant, Louisville Fire Department

From the comments made by respondents to questionnaires and during interviews, there is a consensus that attitudes amongst men are still rather traditional. This clouds their opinions, causing them to question why their sisters, daughters, friends and partners would want to be a firefighter.

5.4 DIFFICULTIES EXPERIENCED BY WOMEN FIREFIGHTERS.

Figure 7 (Page 53) indicates the difficulties women firefighters experienced during appointment and selection, training and when posted to a station. Three in ten women had experienced difficulties during appointment and selection. The main causes for comment were the training required to pass the strength tests and the length of time the whole process took. This is confirmed by Bucke 1994 who said “the fire service differs because of a third factor compounding the situation, the length of the recruitment process”. The physical ability tests introduced by United States Fire Departments also gave some respondents difficulties. However, it did appear that these were more easily overcome and that the opportunities allowed to practice and prepare for them were instrumental in this. An example of the Physical Ability Test used by San Diego Fire Department which is representative of physical ability tests used by many fire departments in the United States of America can be seen at Appendix 9.

There was a divided view about the difficulties being encountered during training. Skewed by the responses from San Diego Fire Department, where the women were virtually unanimous in stating that they had not experienced any difficulties during this phase of their career. The remainder 57% (24) had experienced some difficulties, predominantly with the attitudes of male instructors. Often described as chauvenistic and intimidating. A small number quoted difficulties with manual dexterity skills and technical information, although the researcher recognises that these difficulties could equally apply to men.

“I felt intimidated by some of the instructors and continually had to prove myself better than my male colleagues”.

Woman Firefighter, Louisville Fire Department

“Expected to be constantly tested and weeded out but it was just the opposite”.

Woman Firefighter Engineer, San Diego Fire Department

“Everyone was supportive and seemed to be there to help us pass, but this was the same for everyone irrespective or sex or ethnic origin”.

Woman Captain, San Diego Fire Department.

Experiences on fire stations varied considerably, with most women indicating that they had experienced some difficulties. Those in United Kingdom Fire Brigades appearing to have had more difficulties (75%) than their American counterparts (50% - 60%) across the three fire departments visited (see Figure 7 Page 53).

Bucke (1994) commented that no women interviewed or questioned claimed to have been the subject of physical abuse from male firefighters. The researcher was able to confirm this during his investigation, however, several gave horror story examples of problems they had encountered. Many of these centre around the attitudes of men and their resistance and resentment of women entering what they see as their domain. Comments such as “men’s club mentality” “tribal” and “macho” were voiced by many of those interviewed. This male attitude syndrome was fairly common across the rank structure at station and divisional level.

“Senior Officer told the Watch I was first posted to - mind your P’s and Q’s as she keeps a diary and will report you”

Woman Sub Officer United Kingdom Fire Brigade

“Officer in Charge told the station before I arrived - good news we are getting a recruit to bring the station up to strength, bad news its a woman”.

Woman Firefighter United Kingdom Fire Brigade

“The image of the fire department is still one of men doing a difficult and dangerous job and I don’t think that women really believe they can do it, I know men don’t believe they can”.

Male Firefighter Louisville Fire Department

Chauvenistic attitudes are not restricted to the fire service but are to be found in normal society. A woman firefighter in San Diego gave a graphic example of the harassment women have faced as a result of chauvinistic attitudes at an incident.

“We were on a call where a Yugoslavian woman was injured and I was helping her when her husband a white American, saw I was a women and started laying into me telling me that I didn’t belong in the fire department as my purpose was to populate the earth”.

Woman Firefighter San Diego Fire Department

Another situation cited by those who had experienced problems was the lack of privacy with regard to sleeping and toiletry arrangements. This comment was unanimous amongst the United Kingdom firefighters but not amongst the Americans. San Diego Fire Department have provided privacy curtains around the beds in stations with single dormitories and new stations are designed with separate individual bedrooms. Fairfax County has provided similar sleeping accommodation on most of its fire stations and Louisville has made separate male/female provisions for those stations that have women. It is interesting to note that only San Diego has provided accommodation that is flexible in its ability to accommodate changes in ratio of male/female staffing levels. Both Louisville and Fairfax County have provided accommodation that assumes there will always be considerably less women than men. United Kingdom fire brigades address this problem by laying down rules that determine that a man and woman cannot be alone in the dormitory together i.e two women alone or one woman and two men or two women and two men.

“Senior Officer said to me - the brigade does not agree with monogamy but doesn’t mind a gang bang”.

Woman Sub Officer United Kingdom Fire Brigade

Shower and toilet facilities raised similar problems. Modifications to existing fire stations had reduced the problems and new stations were built with separate facilities although some of these had not been designed to take account of changing ratios of male/female inhabitants. Some stations had not been converted and women serving on these described problems caused by being made to wait to use these facilities.

“Have to wait for all the men to finish before I can shower - once I had to go out again in wet gear because of this and got steam burns on my back. I didn’t complain because the men officers would have used the excuse that I got burned because a woman’s skin is softer”.

Woman Firefighter United Kingdom Fire Brigade

“I had to get up early in the morning before the men were awake to be able to wash”.

Woman Firefighter San Diego Fire Department

“I was told if you want to use the shower get up at six o’clock or wait till you get home”.

Woman Firefighter Louisville Fire Department

“When we eventually got separate showers the men then complained that they didn’t like their communal shower and wanted separate ones”.

Woman Sergeant Louisville Fire Department

Women have worked with men for many years in normal daytime work environments and in these occupations separate washing and toilet facilities are considered the norm. The fire services gave little consideration to this subject when women first joined and even now, some twenty years since the passing of equal opportunities legislation, the matter is still very emotive and has not been adequately addressed.

Some United Kingdom firefighters complained of poor fitting uniform and being made to wear clothes designed for men. The American fire departments have addressed this problem and their uniform is tailored to fit the female body, including shirts and shoes. Firefighting uniform is also available in smaller sizes. At least one of the United Kingdom fire brigades visited has also addressed this problem, providing made to measure uniforms. But firefighting clothing is still not readily available in small enough sizes for some women.

5.5 PHYSICAL FITNESS AND FIREFIGHTING

Virtually all of the groups outside of the fire service, 98% (105) (See Figure 5 Page 48) were agreed that firefighting is a physical job. But only one in four of them considered themselves physically fit enough to be a firefighter. This may be due to the frequency at which they carried out any form of physical activity, 62% (67) of them engaging in physical activity once a week or less with some doing none at all. The research confirmed that firefighters are committed to regular training (see 4.2.2.7 Page 61). With the exception of one who trained once a week, women firefighters trained several times a week.

“I work out daily - you have to stay fit enough”

Woman Firefighter Louisville Fire Department

“I couldn’t keep to a schedule, I’m not strong enough to keep going and keep up”.

School girl - Secondary School

Male firefighters continuously made reference to women not having the same physical ability as men. In virtually every discussion held at a fire station where men were present and in interviews with men this was the overriding concern they expressed in their views.

“Men don’t want women on the job as they feel that they are not strong enough”.

Firefighter Santee Fire Department

Some of the women countered these arguments and quoted instances where men were unable to perform tasks because the individual couldn’t physically manage it. However these comments tended to be disregarded by the men present.

From discussions and interviews, there was a virtually unanimous opinion amongst the women that man cannot accept them as equal. They commented that men were continually scrutinizing them to see if they were strong enough to carry out tasks set them. The researcher detected the same feelings during his stay on fire stations. But could find no evidence to substantiate the claim that women were not physically able to perform the tasks of a firefighter, either during training or at operational incidents.

This was particularly noticeable during the annual physical ability tests carried out by San Diego Fire Department. Here the researcher was able to closely watch firefighters of both sexes and differing ages and lengths of service perform the same tasks under controlled conditions. The results did not indicate that any one sex or age group performed significantly different to any other category.

It was interesting to note that most men seemed to overcome any lack of ability by relying on pure strength. The researcher saw examples of this during drills on station and at incidents. Whereas women tended to pay more attention to how they carried out the task. When discussing this with them they claimed that women cannot, generally, rely on strength alone and develop techniques, in the way they use their physical ability. Whilst beyond the limitation of this report this subject is worthy of further research.

5.6 PUBLICITY AND CAREERS INFORMATION

It can be seen from Figure 1 (Page 38) that one of the common reasons given for not considering the fire service as a career was lack of knowledge and understanding about the role of a firefighter. This is commented on by Bucke (1994) page 51, who identified during group discussions a general lack of information about job opportunities in the fire service.

“Not that much is known about joining up and the things firefighters have to deal with”.

School girl - Secondary School

Four out of five persons from those groups outside of the fire service thought that publicity material currently available about the fire service was aimed towards men. With one in five of the opinion that the material was directed at both sexes (See Figure 3 Page 45). Firefighters were more closely divided in their views with 41% (14) thinking the publicity material was aimed towards men and 52% (18) holding the view that it was applicable to both sexes, 7% (2) had not expressed an opinion. (See Figure 8 Page 55)

Nearly 90% (135) of all persons questioned or interviewed asked for more information to be available and for it to be targeted at specifically women or both sexes (Figures 3 and 8).

“When doing a teaching practice last year on People who Help Us, the posters available only portrayed male firefighters and the only stories I could get access to were on Fireman Sam, therefore these help to reaffirm the stereotyped image”.

University student

“The other emergency services and army, navy have had recent advertising campaigns, the fire service is under represented by the media”.

University student

There were some strong dissenters amongst the 10% (15) who thought career publicity and information was unnecessary.

“Its not necessary as its a mans job”

Female Manual Worker

“Male dominated, no place for a woman”.

Female Managerial Worker

Some responses indicated an opinion that the fire service was a closed shop with few jobs available and those that were available going to friends and relatives of firefighters.

“Little point as every time I apply I am told there are no vacancies and yet others who know firefighters get jobs”.

University students

When firefighters were asked how they got information about the fire service before joining 65% indicated that it was from friends and relatives either in the service or who in turn knew someone in the service (Figure 8). Other sources of information were teachers, advertisements in the media and advertisements mainly aimed at women in sports clubs and gyms. None of them obtained their information from careers offices.

The researcher’s findings are in line with those of Bucke (1994) who commented that the fire service tends to self recruit and that existing firefighters encourage their peers to join. This preserves the traditional white male environment. Whilst the American experience is that women firefighters are now attracting women into the service it is a slow and lengthy process of change. If the fire service is serious about attracting women then it must address this issue and embark on a system of educating and disseminating information on the opportunities for women firefighters. This has to be viewed as a long term programme that has to tackle the social conditioning of women from early childhood. The researcher’s own brigade has introduced a fire cadet scheme open to children of both sexes. This provides an opportunity for girls and young women to gain experience and access to information which in time will, hopefully, influence their social conditioning.

5.7 QUALITIES OF A FIREFIGHTER 

Subjects were given a list of qualities and asked to grade them according to which they considered the most important quality a firefighter should have. This was not an exhaustive list and respondents were asked to add any they thought more appropriate or desirable. The opinions of groups outside the fire service can be seen in Figure 4 (Page 47) and the views of firefighters are presented in Figure 9 (Page 60).

Three out of 5 students and school pupils placed the ability to think quickly as the most important quality with 16% (16) of them placing fitness as their first choice. Second choice was more evenly split between common sense, physical strength and ability to think quickly.

Persons employed outside of the fire service placed fitness, physical strength and the ability to think quickly equally important in their first choice with fitness and common sense placed highest in their second choice.

These findings vary from the views of firefighters who chose other qualities as most important, common sense, caring, commitment. Very few of them (7%) (3) classed physical strength as the most important quality compared with 18% (19) of the other groups.

Comments made on some of the questionnaires related to the job of a firefighter being too physical and that the respondent did not consider herself strong enough. These comments were invariably made by persons who indicated that they did not carry out much physical activity. On the few occasions where the opportunity arose to discuss the questionnaires with the respondents the research tried to identify why these young women were not engaging in physical activity. Such comments as:

“As I started to develop I became self conscious about my body and used any excuse not to do PE, I’ve now got out of the habit.”

Female College Student

were given as reasons. The researcher is unable to qualify the validity of these comments. which are worthy of future study. But considers that if those actions are common amongst school girls it may have a bearing on the availability of likely recruits for jobs that are considered by society to require levels of continuing fitness and strength.

Women firefighters have commented that their male colleagues are preoccupied about physical strength and this has been confirmed by the researcher during his investigations. The women have maintained that it is not an issue although they do express a view that they have to work harder than men to maintain their fitness and strength levels. The information in Figures 4 and 9 would indicate that prospective and existing women firefighters do not place the same importance on physical strength as men.

The researcher encountered a male preoccupation with physical strength in each of the fire services visited. The same preoccupation was noticeable in responses to questionnaires from groups outside of the fire service environment. The stereotype perception of firefighters being strong, brawny males was evident in many of the replies and the researcher noted that many male firefighters appeared to fit this image. In the main, however, the women firefighters encountered were not of this macho mould. The majority of them were very feminine and, especially in the United States, smaller and almost petit at times.

American fire departments have made positive efforts to address this officially with the introduction of physical ability tests (see appendix 9). However in the United Kingdom there is a reluctance to remove the height restriction and a marked absence of the introduction of realistic task related physical ability tests. The use of such tests in American has not dampened the strength argument amongst older men although amongst younger firefighters there is an acceptance of women’s capabilities.

5.8 POSITIVE RECRUITMENT INITIATIVES 

The Americans use the term affirmative action to describe what would be considered positive action in the United Kingdom. Affirmative action has resulted in targets being set for the recruitment of women as part of a strategic plan aimed at producing a workforce that reflects the diversity of the community around it. It is evident that such action in the United States was initiated as a result of action taken under federal law rather than as a consequence of a genuine desire to recruit women. Two of the fire departments visited had been involved in such action and had been subject to a consent decree. It is important here to establish that the targets set as a result of the consent decree were not quotas although many firefighters interpreted them as such.

Determined efforts have increased the numbers of women firefighters in those fire departments visited and was described by one firefighter as:

“......... a system wide commitment to get women in all phases of the department, into all duties, promotion and specialist appointment”.

Captain, San Diego Fire Department

There was a view repeatedly expressed during discussions with firefighters and junior ranks that entry standards had been dropped as a result of the affirmative action. The researcher could find no evidence of this during interviews with senior officers including Chief George of Solano Beach Fire Department, formerly Assistant Chief of San Diego Fire Department at the time the affirmative action was initiated.

It must be acknowledged that those fire departments that have embarked on a programme of vigorous affirmative action have increased the number of women firefighters considerably. The degree to which these initiatives can be considered successful has to be measured against the impact on the morale of the workforce due to their lack of popularity.

“Depends how you grade success; by numbers we’ve been successful, if by the effectiveness of the unit, no.”

Firefighter, San Diego Fire Department

Positive action in the U.K. has not been so aggressive. Similar initiatives such as the entry training and recruitment posters have been tried and have had varying degrees of success. However even this less aggressive action has still received strong criticism. The success of the limited action taken in the U.K. has not had the same effect in increasing the number of women firefighters as in the U.S.A. But there has not been the same political will to pursue positive action nor the same pressure of legal action. The effects of European legislation and other political influences may in the future shift the U.K. more in line with the American philosophy.

5.9 WOMEN FIREFIGHTERS AS EQUALS 

Women firefighters were split fairly equally in their opinions as to whether they are treated equally to other firefighters with one exception, Louisville Fire Department where the women all considered they were treated as equals (see Table 2 Page 58).

As commented on in section 4.4 the lack of privacy associated with sleeping and toilet arrangements and poor fitting uniforms were again quoted as examples of inequality. The chauvinistic attitudes displayed overtly and covertly by some of the men were claimed as reasons women felt that they continually had to prove themselves. This was reflected in the researcher’s interviews with male firefighters where traditionalistic views of a woman’s place and role in society figured regularly in the conversation. These comments were particularly prevalent amongst older men and middle ranking officers.

The Appointment and Promotion Regulations do not require a specific level of academic achievement as a qualification for appointment as a firefighter. Interestingly many fire brigades are now setting minimum educational qualifications as an entry requirement. More as an effort to reduce the number of applications for the few vacancies that arise, than a deliberate attempt to improve educational standards. This would indicate that many existing firefighters particularly those of advancing years may not have reached as high an educational level as some of the younger firefighters, who tend to have educational qualifications. Younger men tended to have opposing views during intereviews and discussions, which may well reflect the more enlightened and changing society in which they were raised.

Senior managers constantly expressed a view that women were treated equally and appeared oblivious to the comments eminating from fire stations and lower ranks..

“They are firefighters through and through, there is no job that they cannot do or are not expected to do.”

Equal Opportunities Officer U K Fire Brigade

It is apparent that women do not share the equality of status in the fire service as they should. But neither do they have the same status in most of society. The movement towards equality is a continual momentum and the fire service cannot stand outside of that movement.

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSIONS

6.1.1 The Questionnaires and Interviews 

The questionnaire was generally well received by persons outside of the fire service environment and, with the exception of one group - employed persons - achieved a higher than expected return rate. Those questionnaires distributed to women firefighters received a mixed response with a lower response rate especially from firefighters in the United Kingdom. The response to the interviews was generally higher than expected with interviewees being most accommodating and willing to participate. Both the questionnaires and the interviews gave people the opportunity to think about the issues and freely express their views, whilst the interviews allowed the added dimension of open discussion.

With hindsight the analysis of the date collected would have been easier if the questionnaire had been simpler and shorter. The pilot investigation (see 3.2) had indicated a need to amend the questionnaire which was done. However a more detailed analysis of those pilot questionnaires would have highlighted the need to make them shorter and simpler.

The same comment is equally true of the interview format where analysis was difficult due to the complexity of the questions. These were deliberately kept open ended to encourage free discussion and allow probing, but a more simplistic approach would have provided an easier analysis.

The combination of a higher than expected return rate of the questionnaires and the complexity of some of the questions in both the questionnaires and interviews provided so much data that the analysis was both difficult and time consuming.

6.1.2 Social Rather than Physical 

When stating the hypothesis during the introduction (see 1.4) the researcher explained that the term social rather than physical needed defining . The behavioural prejudices and experiences that influence development patterns and change are factors that affect the social well being of individuals. One of these developments is changes in public opinion and the way in which this produces prejudices. For the purpose of this report these are the social constraints that have been examined. Whereas the physical constraints are tangible and readily measurable.

6.1.3 Social Constraints

6.1.3.1Male Attitude

There is a noticeable lack of acceptance of women firefighters by older male firefighters. This is prevalent across the rank structure and is in the main covert, but can occasionally be seen as open hostility. This male attitude or chauvinistic view is not restricted to firefighters but is demonstrated by the experiences of women firefighters in relation to their partners and male friends. This was also the perception of women outside of the fire service when asked what they thought the views of their partners would be if they became firefighters.

The stability of relationships involving women firefighters causes concern if the experiences uncovered during the research are typical. The break up of long term relationships and marriages are a product of modern society. But the high numbers indicated amongst women firefighters are worthy of further research, to determine whether the cause is the attitude and lack of acceptance by the male partner or whether it indicates a certain personality trait amongst women. A personality trait that may be a desirable requisite in the character of women who could be successful firefighters and if so could it be tested for during the recruitment process.

6.1.3.2Stereotype Image 

Firefighting is a dangerous, physical and dirty job. But the fire service has evolved and diversified in the role it performs. Fires and rescues are one facet of its many operations and most of which are carried out in a normal safe environment. These however do not convey the excitement or macho image associated with the traditional fire service image and tend to be disregarded. The male ethos prefers to maintain this image by perpetuating the stereotype.

The entertainment industry and the media continue this image by producing films, programmes and even children’s books that portray the strength and courage usually associated with danger and excitement. It is this subconscious yearning to realise a fantasy that tends to feed the attitudes referred to in 6.1.3.1.

6.1.3.3 Fire Station Environment 

Men and women have shared their working environment in daytime occupations for many years. But the fire station is not just a working environments but also a place of rest and relaxation peculiarly so because of the unique duty system that firefighters work. Most fire stations were designed and built for single gender occupancy with open dormitories and communal single sex washing and shower facilities. As women joined the fire service the initial reactions were that they would have to fit in. This was taken to mean that women would share the same sleeping accommodation as men and that little if any provision was made to provide separate toilet and shower facilities. Whether this was initially due to lack of forethought or male resistance to change is difficult to determine.

The American fire departments have made progress in addressing this issue with modifications to existing fire stations and changes in design to new builds, to provide privacy in sleeping areas and separate washing and toilet facilities. Some fire departments by virtue of the limited size of women’s facilities provided; have demonstrated an opinion, perhaps inadvertently, that women will always be a minority. Fire brigades in the U.K. have made little progress in this area. Whilst separate toilet and washing arrangements are being provided and realised as necessary there has been a lack of recognition of the need to make privacy provisions for sleeping.

6.1.3.4 Information and Publicity 

During his field work the researcher has been able to confirm views of Bucke (1994) that the recruitment process is unnecessarily lengthy. It is a source of criticism both in this country and in the U.S.A.. This is compounded by the relative infrequency of recruitment opportunities for most fire brigades and the lack of information and publicity material available to prospective firefighters. A number of fire services both in the U.K. and in the U.S.A. have made efforts to produce suitable recruitment literature but the evidence is that it has had limited success.

There is a need to establish a system of outreaching to inform and educate young women and men about the fire service. To effect changes in the views of society, there must be a continuous educational process that reinforces the opportunities available to women.

6.1.3.5 Positive Action 

The affirmative action taken by two of the fire departments visited in the U.S.A. has been successful in recruiting and maintaining large numbers of women in the operational workforce. As more women become firefighters they are becoming accepted and in these circumstances some of the traditional barriers are being eroded. The decisions that precipitated the reduction of entry standards to get the first women in post caused unnecessary conflict which with forethought should have been avoided.

Positive action in the U.K. has generally been restricted to providing training to prepare for testing and entry procedures and this has also been practised in the U.S.A.. There has tended to be a resistance, in the U.K., to use existing women firefighters as role models and to aid recruitment. A practice which has been very successful in America.

6.1.4 Physical Constraints

6.1.4.1 Physical Ability Tests 

There is little doubt that a major obstacle for women is the physical tests. Federal laws and the action taken against fire departments in the U.S.A. produced a noticeable change in this area and increased the opportunities for women. The development of physical ability testing was in the opinion of many women the key issue to their successful recruitment.

There is a view that similar task related testing should be introduced into the recruitment process in the U.K. The reasoning being that the appointment and promotion regulations are biased against women. American fire departments adopted physical ability testing because of legal pressures and not because of a recognised inequality in their previous testing arrangements. These tests whilst claiming to be job related were still devised by men and are easier for men to perform. Therefore there is a need for women to train harder to reach the same standard. There is a need for the U.K. to change but any move to task related tests should take account of the physiological differences between men and women.

6.1.4.2 Maintaining Fitness Levels 

It was evident from the field work and from the researcher’s own experience that the physical demands for operational firefighting are causes of concern for women. Many women who having passed the tests and gained entry into the fire service have difficulty in maintaining fitness levels. Men are able to maintain their fitness levels with a moderate degree of exercise but to maintain parity women have to subject themselves to a constant schedule of workouts. There is little information available at present on whether women will be physically able to maintain this up to the normal retirement age, at present 50 years of age in the U.K.

The advances in technology and the introduction of modern materials and equipment many reduce the need for such a physical standard to be maintained. The physiological development of modern men and women and the reducing gap between them in competitive and performance arenas such as sport may have effects in the future. But for the present time and the immediate future strength and fitness will continue to be a barrier to women.

6.2 EXAMINATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS 

From examining the data it can be concluded that the hypothesis women fail to join the fire service due to social rather than physical constraints is a “null” hypothesis. There are social constraints that work against women joining the fire service. But these do not overshadow the physical constraints imposed by the testing procedures and the physical nature of the work.

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 

As a result of the study many issues have arisen that are difficult to define. These encompass social behaviour and backgrounds, cultural aspects and the physiological performance differences of the sexes. This study can only highlight the difficulties and in making recommendations will indicate areas where more research may prove fruitful.

· The fire service should re-examine its policy with regard to privacy for the sexes. Seeking to determine the value of providing privacy arrangements for sleeping. This should be available to all irrespective of sex and should extend to include washing and toilet facilities.

· Further research is recommended to examine the reasons behind the break up of marriages and long term relationships of women firefighters. In an attempt to understand the reasons and establish whether this indicates a male problem or a female personality trait that could be tested for during recruitment.

· An educational programme should be considered which would provide a system of outreaching to overcome the current perception of a lack of information. This should address social and cultural differences and should be targeted at both sexes and all areas of the community to assist in overcoming bias through an educational process. It is also recommended that this programme attempts to harness the media and entertainment value of the fire service in an effort to implant a positive understanding of the stereotype image.

· An educational programme should be introduced within the fire service to address the attitudinal bias of male firefighters. This should address not just the equal opportunities situation but should be extended to encompass the social and cultural differences between the sexes and specifically the physiological differences.

· The fire services in the United Kingdom should take note of the successes and failures of the affirmative action taken by some fire departments in the United States of America when considering their own position on positive recruitment action.

0986b026.mas

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARMSTRONG, D. (1993)

The Changing Face of the Fire Service - A Handbook on Women in Firefighting

pp 1- 3, 53-70.

U.S. Government, Washington.

BEECHEY, V. (1984)

The Changing Experience of Women - Units 10 & 11 Women and Employment

Unit 10 pp 11-47, Unit 11 pp 32-44.

Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England.

BEECHEY, V. and WHITELEGG, E. (eds) (1986)

Womens Employment in Contemporary Britain in Women in Britain Today

pp 77-131.

Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England.

BELL, J. (1995)

Doing Your Research Project

Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England.

BUCKE, T. (1994)

Equal Opportunities and the Fire Service

Home Office Research & Planning Unit, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

COHEN, L. and MANION, L. (1982)

Research Methods in Education

pp 76-90, 97-120, 241-242, 253-254.

Croon Helm Ltd, London.

DYER, K. (1982)

Catching up Men: Women in Sport

p 89

Junction Books Ltd, Great Britain.

EVETTS, J. (1994)

Women and Career: Themes and Issues in Advanced Industrial Societies

pp 1-43.

Longman Publishing, New York.

Page118

FOX, E., BOWERS, R. and FOSS, M. (1988)

The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics (4th Edition)

pp 60-94, 243-457

W B Saunders, U.S.A.

H.M. CHIEF INSPECTOR OF FIRE SERVICES

Report 1995

Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, England.

JANEWAY, E. (1977)

Man’s World Woman’s Place (A Study in Social Mythology)

pp 14-15.

Penguin Books, England.

JONES, S. (1986)

Policewomen and Equality: Formal Policy v Informal Practice

pp 1-32.

The Macmillan Press Ltd, Hampshire, England.

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION CENTRE

The EEO and Affirmative Action - Resource Manual for the Chief Fire Executive.

International Association of Fire Chiefs, Virginia, U.S.A.

MCNALLY, F. (1979)

Women for Hire

pp 186-187

McMillan, London, England.

MCPHERSON, CARTER, LOY (1989)

The Social Significance of Sport

p 223.

Human Kinetics Book, U.S.A.

MYRDAL, A. and KLEIN, V. (1986)

Women’s Two Roles

pp 12, 52-54, 111-157.

Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, London, England.

OAKLEY, A. (1981)

Subject Women

pp 135-162

Martin Robertson & Company Ltd., Great Britain.

TURNEY, S. (1982)

Report to Public Services & Fire Services Committee G.L.C.

Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, England.

The Fire Services (Appointment & Promotion) Regulations 1976

Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, England.

The Employment Protection Act 1978

Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, England.

The Sex Discrimination Act 1975

Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, England.

WELLS, C. (1991)

Women, Sport and Performance (2nd Edition)

pp 3-49

Human Kinetics Books, U.S.A.

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Some of these appendices have not travelled to the web in true format this will be dealt with in due course. site.manager@fitting-in.com

 APPENDIX 5e

FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

United Kingdom Fire Brigades

Question 1	Reasons
Non traditional job 12% Pay, conditions 37% Useful/exciting/physically active/stimulating 62% (some listed more than 1 reason)

Question	V+	+	M	S -	V -
2a	12.5 %	50 %	12.5 %	25 %	%
2b	14 %	28 %	43 %	15 %	%
3a	25 %	37.5 %	25 %	12.5 %	%
3b	%	37.5 %	37.5 %	25 %	%

Question 4	Yes	No
a.	37 %	63 %
b.	62 %	38 %
c.	75 %	25 %

Question 5
Teacher	%
Friend	50 %
Careers Officer	%
Relative	12.5 %
News Advert	12.5 %
Others Poster in womens gym Pre recruitment course	25 %

Question 6
Male	50 %
Female	%
Both	50 %

Questions	Yes	No
7	87 %		Remainder did not answer.
8	50 %	50 %

Question	Comments
9	Men don’t think that women can do the job. Sleeping/toilet arrangements Privacy Uniform not fitting properly Chauvinistic attitudes.

Question 10	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	0 %	0 %	10 %
Fitness	37 %	25 %	40 %
Sympathetic	0 %	0 %	10 %
P. Strength	12 %	0 %	30 %
Ability / Think	0 %	50 %	0 %
Commonsense	63 %	25 %	0 %
Others Ability to work as team	13 %	0 %	10 %

Question 11

Yes 100 %

No 0 %

Question 12
Never	0 %
1 month	0 %
1 week	0 %
More regularly	100 %

Question 13		Comments
Yes	38 %	Rewarding/satisfying. Physically active, practically minded, interested in people, able to handle pressure and take charge of difficult situations - most women fit this description. Women need the right attitude. See also (1) and (2).
No	62 %

 APPENDIX 5a

NON FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

University Students 40 female 6 male

Question 2	Yes 30 %	Question 3. Too physically demanding. To prove that women can do jobs men belive they can’t. A man’s job. Never been suggested to me. Too short. Poor eyesight.
	No 70 %
Question 4	Yes 97 %	Question 5 . Women are equal. Women have equal qualities . Amount of strength required may put some women off. Male dominated for too long.
	No 3 %

Question 6	V +	+	M	S -	V -
a	8 %	28 %	46 %	13 %	5%*
b	6 %	34 %	40 %	17 %	3%*
c	7 %	43 %	41 %	9 %	0 %

* Safety appears to be of main concern.

Question 7	M 89 %	Question 8	Yes 93 %
	F %		No 7 %
	B 6.5 %

Remainder say they can’t recall seeing any.

Question 9	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	%	%	7 %
Fitness	17 %	15 %	37 %
Sympathetic	%	%	%
P. Strength	13 %	26 %	20 %
Ability/Think	54 %	20 %	15 %
Commonsense	15 %	37 %	17 %
Others Team worker	5 %	%	%

Question 10	Yes 95 %
	No 5 %

Question 11	Never 0 %
	1 month 13 %
	1 week 41 %
	More regular 46 %

Question 12	2 yrs 95 %
	3-5 yrs 5 %
	6-10 yrs 0 %

Question 13	Yes 31 %	One wouldn’t commit - could be fit enough but workload has
	No 67 %	taken over training at present time.

 APPENDIX 5b

NON FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

College Students (A level) 24 female 1 male

Question 2	Yes 12 %	Question 3. Too short. Not active enough. Fear of heights/enclosed spaces. Enjoy physical side. Mainly a male domain.
	No 88 %
Question 4	Yes 96 %	Question 5 . Women are not strong enough.
	No 4 %

Question 6	V +	+	M	S -	V -
a	20 %	32 %	32 %	16 %	0 %
b	10 %	15 %	55 %	15 %	5 %
c	8 %	36 %	44 %	12 %	0 %

Question 7	M 68 %	Question 8	Yes 100 %
	F 0 %		No %
	B 32 %

Question 9	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	4 %	4 %	4 %
Fitness	16 %	20 %	24 %
Sympathetic	%	%	%
P. Strength	8 %	24 %	20 %
Ability/Think	68 %	20 %	%
Commonsense	4 %	28 %	44 %
Others Team worker	4 %	%	%

Question 10	Yes 100 %	Along side other qualities.
	No %

Question 11	Never 0 %
	1 month 32 %
	1 week 44 %
	More regular 24 %

Question 12	2 yrs 100 %
	3-5 yrs %
	6-10 yrs %

Question 13	Yes 16 %
	No 84 %

 APPENDIX 5c

NON FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

Secondary School 31 all female

Question 2	Yes 39 %	Question 3. Not strong enough, not fit enough, lack of confidence. Too physical. Exciting and challenging. Don’t like fire.
	No 61 %
Question 4	Yes 93 %	Question 5 . Too physical for women. Equal opportunities for all sexes/races.
	No 7 %

Question 6	V +	+	M	S -	V -
a	26 %	35 %	19 %	16 %	4 %
b	15 %	30 %	19 %	27 %	9 %
c	19 %	39 %	39 %	3 %	0 %

Question 7	M 77 %	Question 8	Yes 93 %	Not that much is known about joining up and the things they have to deal with.
	F 0 %		No 7 %
	B 23 %

Question 9	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	%	3 %	6 %
Fitness	16 %	13 %	29 %
Sympathetic	%	%	3%
P. Strength	13 %	16 %	26 %
Ability/Think	55 %	26 %	3 %
Commonsense	6 %	32 %	19 %
Others Stay Calm Put others first	3 % 3 %	%	%

Question 10	Yes 93 %
	No 7 %

Question 11	Never %
	1 month 4 %
	1 week 16 %
	More regular 80 %

Question 12	2 yrs 100 %
	3-5 yrs %
	6-10 yrs %

Question 13	Yes 55 %	Couldn’t keep to a schedule - I’m not strong enough to keep
	No 45 %	up.

 APPENDIX 5d

NON FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

Employed persons 4 women 1 man

Question 2	Yes 20 %	Question 3. Male dominated workforce ) 80% of respondents. Job for men )
	No 80 %
Question 4	Yes 40 %	Question 5 . Women not strong enough. 40% of respondents.
	No 60 %

Question 6	V +	+	M	S -	V -
a	%	40 %	40 %	%	20 %
b	%	20 %	40 %	%	40%*
c	%	40 %	40 %	%	20 %

* Male dominated - no place for women.

* No necessary as it is really a man’s job.

Question 7	M 100 %	Question 8	Yes 60 %
	F %		No 40 %
	B 6.5 %

Question 9	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	%	%	20 %
Fitness	40 %	40 %	20 %
Sympathetic	%	%	20 %
P. Strength	40 %	%	%
Ability/Think	40 %	20 %	20 %
Commonsense	%	40 %	20 %
Others	%	%	%

Question 10	Yes 100 %
	No %

Question 11	Never 20 %
	1 month %
	1 week 80 %
	More regular %

Question 12	2 yrs 80 %
	3-5 yrs 20 %
	6-10 yrs 0 %

Question 13	Yes %
	No 100 %

APPENDIX 5f

FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

San Diego Fire Department

Question 1	Reasons
Non traditional job Variety Benefits/salary Challenging job

Question	V+	+	M	S -	V -
2a	0 %	75 %	16.5 %	8.5 %	0 %
2b	8.5 %	33.5 %	58 %	0 %	0 %
3a	8.5 %	66.5 %	25 %	0 %	0 %
3b	0 %	25 %	41.5 %	35.5 %	0 %

Question 4	Yes	No
a.	17 %	83 %
b.	42 %	58 %
c.	59 %	41 %

Question 5
Teacher	9 %
Friend	75 %
Careers Officer	0 %
Relative	0 %
News Advert	8 %
Others Recruitment package at women’s athletic club.	8 %

Question 6
Male	33 %
Female	%
Both	67 %

Questions	Yes	No
7	90 %	10 %
8	42 %	58 %

Question	Comments
9	Always have to prove ourselves. OK on own station but have to start all over again on a new station Men reluctant to take orders from me.

Question 10	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	42 %	25 %	0 %
Fitness	25 %	25 %	25 %
Sympathetic	0 %	0 %	8.5 %
P. Strength	8 %	0 %	0 %
Ability / Think	0 %	0 %	17 %
Commonsense	17 %	8.5 %	17 %
Others Commitment Self confidence Team player	0 % 8 % 0 %	17 % 8.5 % 17 %	17 % 0 % 0 %

Question 11

Yes 90 %

No 10 %

Question 12
Never	0 %
1 month	0 %
1 week	25 %
More regularly	75 %

Question 13		Comments
Yes	58 %	More positive - good career for a woman Important for people to believe in themselves and their own capabilities. Society protrays women in traditional roles which is wrong.
No	42 %

FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS APPENDIX 5g

Louisville Fire Department

Question 1	Reasons
Sister suggested it to me - I love the excitment and challenge ) Fancied outdoor work and the challenge appealed to me ) 66% Grew up as only girl in the neighbourhood and am used to being the only female - challenge ) Duty system, pay and benefits - 17% Non-traditional job (father was a firefighter) - 17%

Question	V+	+	M	S -	V -
2a	50 %	16 %	34 %	%	%
2b	%	40 %	60 %	%	%
3a	30 %	50 %	20 %	%	%
3b	%	30 %	20 %	50 %	%

Question 4	Yes	No
a.	16 %	84 %
b.	50 %	50 %
c.	60 %	40 %

Question 5
Teacher	%
Friend	40 %
Careers Officer	%
Relative	20 %
News Advert	20 %
Others Project agile - fire dept run project at women only gym	20 %

Question 6
Male	83 %
Female	%
Both	17 %

Questions	Yes	No
7	100 %
8	100 %	%

Question	Comments
9

Question 10	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	50 %	33 %	%
Fitness	%	16 %	66 %
Sympathetic	%	%	%
P. Strength	16 %	%	16 %
Ability / Think	%	%	%
Commonsense	18 %	50 %	16 %
Others Commitment	16 %	16 %	%

Question 11

Yes 100 %

No 0 %

Question 12
Never	%
1 month	0%
1 week	%
More regularly	100 %

Question 13		Comments
Yes	34 %	Women must be treated no differently to men Many women do not have the right attitude and personalibty to dig in and get dirty, I am one of them but not necessarily a part of them. Traditional male stigma with no clear definition of what fire service is about puts women off. We don’t really think of fire service as being a professional career. Women will always be the ‘B’ team - men’s attitudes against women in the job.
No	66 %

 APPENDIX 5h

FIRE BRIGADE QUESTIONNAIRE ANALYSIS

Fairfax County Fire Department

Question 1	Reasons
Non traditional upbringing attracted me to a non traditional job 50% Career opportunities, benefits 50% Didn’t like normal desk, 9-5 jobs

Question	V+	+	M	S -	V -
2a	50 %	25 %	25 %	%	%
2b	%	%	50 %	50 %	%
3a	66 %	%	34 %	%	%
3b	%	25 %	50 %	%	25 %

Question 4	Yes	No
a.	50 %	50 %
b.	75 %	25 %
c.	50 %	50 %

Question 5
Teacher	25 %
Friend	63 %
Careers Officer	%
Relative	%
News Advert	12 %
Others	%

Question 6		Some didn’t answer as they had not seen any publiciity material.
Male	%
Female	%
Both	75 %

Questions	Yes	No
7	75 %		- ditto -
8	50 %	50 %

Question	Comments
9	I sometimes feel that I am being more closely evaluated than my male colleagues. There are wmen as well as men I don’t get on with. If you complain it’s perceived that you have a chip on your shoulder - white males get defensive if accused of discrimination. Older guys have a male attitude problem.

Question 10	1st	2nd	3rd
Caring	%	%	%
Fitness	25 %	25 %	%
Sympathetic	%	%	%
P. Strength	%	%	25 %
Ability / Think	25 %	25 %	%
Commonsense	%	%	50 %
Others Commitment	50 %	25 %	%

Question 11

Yes 100 %

No 0 %

Question 12
Never	%
1 month	%
1 week	%
More regularly	100 %

Question 13		Comments
Yes	75 %	The stereotype views about the fire department are not true. Most women are capable of doing this job. It is difficult for a women and will be difficult to integrate more women into the fire service. T.V. media and films all put out negative vibes towards women.
No	25 %

APPENDIX 7

INTERVIEW CONTENT RECORD

Question 3	Most aggressive in the country.
Positive	No.1 issue overshadowing all procedures and policies. Updated regularly in discussions with unions. Must be pushed from the top and all committed to it.
Negative	Should be equal not affirmative.

Question 4	Treated fairly and equitably - no discrimination that bars them from entry.
Positive	System wide commitment to get women and minorities into all levels of fire department. Encourages use of existing women as role models. Education on the effects of firefighting on fetal toxicology.
Negative	None.

Question 5		Before 1st woman employed
Over - 10 yrs	100 %	Yes 75% %
6 - 10 yrs	%	No % 25%
0 - 5 yrs	%

Question 6	Physical ability tests to replace strength and height requirements.
Positive	Opportunities to practise physical ability tests prior to actual entry tests. Modified physical ability tests in light of experience. Targeted women only areas - gyms, colleges, military establishments. Use of role models (USA fire departments) Positively sell advantages - equal pay, promotional prospects, duty systems. Unified commitment at all managerial levels. Outreaching - large effort put into educating and advertising. (USA Fire departments) Junior firefighter scheme.
Negative	In drive to attract women, initially entry standards were relaxed. (USA Fire departments) Do not actively recruit women, just take those that apply (Santee FD)

Question 7	Open up opportunities to women and allow them to prepare for tests and establish good practice.
Positive	Fair and appropriate thing to do.
Negative	Federal laws and fear of prosecution. To achieve quotas. Went for quantity not quality. Satisfy women’s movements - individual crusades. City managers and Chief determined to get women at all levels and lift Consent Decree. No one seems willing to say. Chief at the time wanted to be one of first to employ women firefighters.

Question 8	Tests are job related and are tough - a lot of men and women do fail them.
Positive	Good publicity materials but not distributed to those who would benefit.
Negative	Not really - standards have been revised and everyone does the same tests but there is a belief from the older men that it is not as tough as it used to be. Depends how you grade success - by numbers - Yes. - by effectiveness of unit - No I have spent 100's of hours at academy watching people train and can say unequivocally that there has been a decrease in effectiveness and ability to do the job.

Question 9	A lot of work done since in getting physical ability list sorted out.
Yes %	Physical standards were carried over from tradition - but were causing more injuries then necessary - changes in technique reduced injuries to both sexes however this came from legal interpretation rather than safety.
No 90 %	Not before recruiting first women. Doubt it very seriously - problems were answered as they arose - rest rooms and dormitories a prime example. We did not really think it through. We did not consider the effects of such aggressive affirmative actions on moral.

Question 10	N/A
Positive
Negative	None

Question 11	We were prompted to seek women as a better balance of representation of the community. Chief decided that each recruitment should include 25% minorities.
Positive
Negative	1964 Civil Rights Bill and need to keep federal agencies off our backs. Political decision to satisfy liberal politics that manifested themselves throughout. to satisfy political quotas. Pressure from women’s groups.

Q. 12	Q.13	Q.14	Q.15	Q.16	Q.17
383	344	39	10859	9747	1112

Question 18	Physically there has been a problem, but those we have now are capable and there must be plenty of others who are too.
Positive	Role Models - easier for women to explain to women - downfall of previous recruitment no women role models. Women are afraid of fire, women don’t want to go into a burning building, but will do police work so it is not the male job syndrome. Vast majority of women are not interested in being a firefighter mainly because they perceive that they cannot handle the physical side of the job. Women believe that socially they won’t be accepted - that’s changing. Time to grow up and question some of our old traditions.
Negative	Attitudes of men - inside and outside of the job - still view it as a macho job and don’t think that women can’t do the job. Caps, hair styles - tradition do we need to maintain tradition just for the sake of it. Male resistance and resentment, men’s club mentality, tribal, macho, profanities. Poor officers - discriminating against women. Recruit testing procedures should be designed to test the skills of a firefighter. Toilets and sleeping arrangements.

Question 19	Improved, it is happening top level supports women and men have got used to it.
Positive	Fewer fires and fewer large fires - less need for continual physical effort - not required as much as men claim. Women have to work harder than men to succeed (virtually unanimous) As older men retire the old ideas are going with them, younger men tend to be more receptive.
Negative	Some men still resent women but don’t outwardly show it. women feel it and are not comfortable - negative impact on emotions affect how they do the job. Men still feel that they have to demonstrate their superiority. If you want to be a man we will treat you like a man. Men have been more involved in learning how to behave to avoid harassment claims than learning how to treat women as equals - many don’t know how. Women have had to be honorary men. FBU discriminates by defending old hand saying if you complain against him he will lose his job - what about his wife and children.

Question 20	Officers views are changing as more women enter the service.
Positive
Negative	Senior officers think everything is OK but it is not. Become paranoid - afraid to issue instructions, correct or report women for fear of being accused of harassment. Most officers are men and make decisions for women without understanding a woman’s needs. Old guard - our traditions and fire brigade and we want to keep it that way.

Question 21	Done during training school - culture and station life explained.
Positive	SDFD had an all woman station but it did not work - the women could not get on with each other. One chief tried briefing women before going on station but it caused resentment from the men.
Negative	No special procedure - just posted to a station, problems sorted out when they get there (toilets/sleeping). Mistaken belief by management that everything is O.K.

Question 22	All USA fire departments and 1 UK fire brigade have undress uniform tailored for women. Firefighting uniform is available in smaller sizes in USA.
Yes % 100 (USA) 20 (UK)
No 80 %	Remainder of UK brigades interviewed did not tailor uniform especially for women. Most women firefighters questioned in UK fire brigades complained of poor fitting uniform - too big, bulky, boots, gloves don’t fit.

Question 23
Yes %
No % 100	There has been no conscious decisions to change fire appliance design to accommodate women.

Question 24	Technological developments have produced lighter equipment that is easier to handle but no brigade appears to have purchased it on the grounds of it being more suitable for women to use.
Yes %
No % 100

Question 25	We are treated as firefighters - some guys try to help us a bit more because that is the way they have been brought up.
Positive	They are treated the same as all recruits - they all have to prove themselves. They are firefighters through and through - there is no job that they cannot do. We push that everyone is an individual and should be treated as such. Should be treated fairly not equally.
Negative	Formally yes ) Virtually everyone is afraid to speak out. Informally no ) Department is biased towards them - they are favoured for promotion. Men cannot accept that women are equal (virtually unanimous). They are isolated on station because men are afraid to skylark with them. Brigade practices especially in drills and equipment handling are based on traditional male ideologies of using strength. Women don’t use strength they use technique - men don’t understand this and can’t teach women techniques.

Question 26	Sleeping	Toilet / Shower	Changing
	USA 80% UK 0 %	USA 70% UK 20 %	USA 80% UK 0 %

Question 27	Better to have more as small numbers tend to hurt both sexes - men don’t get exposed to them enough to overcome their prejudices and women don’t get to serve with other women.
Yes % Women 90% Men 40%	Yes but we should not use affirmative action to recruit them. Either have a programme to recruit a lot of women or none at all. Only if we are maintaining standards as attracting more women would allow us to select the best.
No % Women 10% Men 60%	No, should not have women in the job.

Question 28	Many women do not consider it a job for them. This job is unique and that takes a special type of women - we can get them but I don’t think that we will ever get a truly balanced workforce. We don’t sell the job to women - outreaching is the key.
Positive
Negative	Biggest bar to women is the general feeling and attitude displayed by men. Fire Brigade is still seen as a traditional male environment. Women are not raised the same way as men - they have a different social outlook on careers. Fear of failing and being rejected. Its too dangerous. Negative press/films depicting strength hostile male environment.

Question 29	Now	10 Years Ago
Positive	Macho image gone - not as paramilitary. Integration of women has destroyed old image and make it a job anyone can do. A softer, caring image that is sympathetic to the community it serves.	Firefighters were people the public could look up to.
Negative	Still a white male predominance. Media/films still portray it as a male macho organisation public like that image.	Very macho an image to line up to. Male only preserve.

Question 30	Public want fairness. Public take well to women firefighters.
Yes 90 %	The public doesn’t really mind men or women as long as they can do the job and are there when they need them.
No 10 %	Don’t think public really want women firefighters, they still expect a big strong man to come and rescue them. A lot of people don’t realise that there are women firefighters.

Question 31	Now	10 years ago
Positive	A caring service that provides help when needed, employing a diverse workforce. Multi race/sex and very technically adapt. Safety conscious and community oriented.	Proud traditional service.
Negative		Paramilitary organisation, steeped in tradition, aggressive in its firefighting. Macho male dominated organisation.

Question 32
Yes 60 %
No 40 %	Public still see some of the old image and wonder why we are trying to change. We don’t portray the caring image well but it’s a key role and quality of a firefighter.

Question 33

Yes 70 %

No 30 %

Question 34	Education and diversity training.
Positive	Evolution due to changes in the services the service provides - community services and education. Positively but fairly recruit women and high profile them.
Negative	Time will evolve change and it should be allowed to change at its own pace. Don’t take obvious affirmative action to appoint and promote women.

Question 35
Yes 0 %
No 100 %	Some men claim that the physical ability tests were designed for women and that the times were set for women - most men can do them in considerably less time.

Question 36
Positive
Negative	No - unanimous.

APPENDIX 10

SOMERSET FIRE BRIGADE

EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

FEMALE RECRUITMENT TARGETS

Women Men

244,744 Population 228,006

37,800 Number 18-31 years 43,950

9% % meeting height criteria 94%

3,402 Number meeting age and height criteria 41,313

1.39 % % of county population by sex

meeting age and height criteria 18.11%

Targets?

Should the target for uniformed female personnel be:

3,402 + 41,313 = 44,715

3,402 x 100 = 7.6%

44,715

Wholetime: 7.6% of 173 = 13.1 = 13 posts

Retained: 7.6% of 390 = 29.6 = 30 posts

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