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Howell, M.A. (1994) Women firefighters ‘the inequality
gap’ Unpublished dissertation
for MBA University of Herts. CONTENTS
ChaptersIntroduction The Case for Women Firefighters Perceptions About Women The Culture of the Workforce The Experience of Existing Firefighters Conclusions and Recommendations |
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Appendices -
HFRS Operational Personnel By Gender The Fire Service Appointment and Promotion Regulations
1988 Relative Heights of Men and Women Corporate Statement - Rank Xerox Newspaper Article - Sexual Harassment Case Example Leaflets - Harassment and Bullying Perceptions of the Qualities of a Firefighter Extract from Manual Handling Regulations Example of Policy Statement on Hair LFCDA Equality Audit Document Company Information ‘Flier’ - Rank Xerox Questionnaires Terms of Reference Methodology Project Statement References Glossary |
Howell, M.A. (1994) Women
firefighters ‘the inequality gap’ Unpublished
dissertation for MBA University of Herts.
1.1 It has now been over two decades since
equality legislation was introduced in this country. Despite this in July 1994
Hertfordshire Fire and Rescue Service (HFRS) had yet to recruit and train any
women as full time firefighters. Most of the women employed in the organisation
occupy what may be regarded as traditional supporting roles (Appendix 1),
although in recent years women have managed to penetrate the ‘glass ceiling’
and move into executive posts. In recent years there has been considerable pressure for change and yet the
position , in practical terms, has not changed at all in Hertfordshire. It is only slightly better in other Fire
Brigades, only 2 of the 62 in England, Scotland and Wales employ more than 5
and only half of the Brigades employ any women at all.
1.2 The Service as a whole can claim only a low
level of success in recruitment of women as firefighters, in 1993 only 116
women firefighters were employed in the UK out of a workforce of over 39,400, this represents < 0.3%. Experience
shows that retention has also posed problems for Fire Service managers. The
pressures for a change in this situation come primarily from the expectations
of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) supported by the law itself.
1.3 Three Acts
of Parliament have been
introduced with the specific intention of dealing with equal opportunities (EO)
in the workplace particularly discrimination on the grounds of sex. Each of these laws has a direct effect on
decisions and employment practice in relation to EO for men and women. They are:
The Equal Pay Act 1970
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975
The Sex Discrimination Act 1986
1.4 Compliance with the 1970 Act in respect of
equal pay for the job of a firefighter has already been resolved. The 1975 and
1986 Acts made sex discrimination unlawful in the following areas:
employment and
training,
education,
the provision of
goods, facilities and services to members of the public.
1.5 Discrimination is defined under two categories:
direct and indirect. Direct
discrimination occurs when somebody is treated less favourably on the grounds
of their sex than a person of the other sex is, or would, be treated in similar
circumstances (Section 1(1)(a)).
1.6 Indirect discrimination occurs when a
requirement or condition which cannot be justified on grounds other than sex is
applied to men and women equally that has the effect, in practice, of disadvantaging
a higher proportion of one sex than the other (Section 1(1)(b)). An example is where irrelevant technical
qualifications are asked for and where fewer women hold the qualification.
Areas in which discrimination could take place is in the:
arrangements made for deciding who
is offered a job,
advertising or interviews etc.,
the terms
or conditions in which the job is offered,
the
provision of opportunities for promotion/transfer/training,
the benefit facilities or services an
employer grants to employees,
in
dismissals, rather unfavourable treatment of employees.
1.7 Following recruitment the employer is also
responsible for dealing with harassment at work. Although harassment covers a
wide range of issues it is generally, for the purposes of definition, been
concentrated on sexual harassment. This
has been defined as “unwanted conduct of a sexual nature, or other conduct
based on sex, affecting the dignity of women and men at work”. This includes unwelcome physical, verbal or
non-verbal conduct. By failing to
protect the dignity of women (and indeed men) by combating sexual harassment employers leave themselves open to a number
of legal consequences.
1.8 Generally speaking in most areas of law the
employer is responsible for the acts of their employee, not to deal with
harassment issues could result in the victim leaving the employment and
claiming unfair constructive dismissal.
There may also be additional claims of criminal assault or negligence or
breach of contract. With no upper limit
on awards for compensation in cases of sex discrimination the economic
consequences for Fire Services of ignoring their statutory obligations could be
drastic.
1.9 The legal requirements apply to the Fire
Service in the same way as any other employer.
The Service, therefore, must not provide barriers to women to enter the
Service and once recruited, women should expect to be treated fairly and
equally and the employer has the responsibility to ensure that this is in fact
the case.
1.10 The only ‘legitimate’ barrier for any
employer to operate is one that is a clearly justified requirement of the post
i.e. a ‘Genuine Occupational Qualification’.
In the case of the Fire Service this refers to the entry regulations
which include minimum physical standards.
If the entry regulations can be held as irrelevant to the actual job
they may be seen as artificial and said to be indirect, or even, direct
discrimination.
1.11 Artificial barriers also exist in the
form of the image of the Service and the perceptions of the qualities needed to
be a firefighter and whether the image makes the job unattractive or
inaccessible to women. If the organisation is capable of influencing this issue
and does not, it may leave itself open to a charge of discrimination. As referred to earlier, an objective
perspective on these issues can be gained by considering the view of the EOC on
women and the Fire Service.
1.12 The increase in pressure for change in the
Service is best illustrated by comments made at a conference staged by the
Association and Metropolitan Authorities in March 1994. Jane Monkhouse warned that “the Commission
is getting fed up with waiting for persuasion to work”. She went on “the Commission does not care
what you think, the Commission cares about how you behave and what you actually
do”. In referring to the continuing low numbers of women firefighters 18 years
after the introduction of the Sex Discrimination Act she stated that the
Commission was “tired of listening to the excuses”. She also went on to say that the Fire Service is not embracing
domestic legislation let alone European.
1.13 Ms Monkhouse commented that to ensure
that the Service operates lawfully, acceptance of the issues of EO needs to be
taken on at the highest level followed by a firm commitment to change..... a change of culture if necessary! She also referred to the barriers to women
being caused by the existing entry regulations and in particular the relevance
of height and by implication its relationship to strength.
1.14 The entry criteria is set out in the Fire
Services (Appointments and Promotions) Regulations 1988 (Appendix 2) which
amended the 1978 Regulations of the same name in a number of ways. Specifically entry tests were redesigned to
make them more objective and scientific and perhaps less discriminatory against
women applicants. For example, the
earlier 36 inch chest requirement and a 2 inch expansion were replaced by a
measurement of lung function based on the use of a spirometer or peak flow
meter to measure forced expiratory volume and forced vital capacity (FEV and
FVC).
1.15 The old requirement for strength to be
measured by a test of the ability to carry a person approximately 10 stone in
weight over a distance of approximately 100 yards in less than 60 seconds was
also replaced by tests of isometric muscle strength by hand grip and leg back
pull tests. The values specified however, are based on a task analysis of,
among other criteria, existing practices using equipment etc. designed for
the existing workforce, i.e. men.
1.16 One
requirement which was not amended was the minimum height requirement of
1.68 metres (5’6”) although the study that gave rise to the amendments did
introduce an upper height limit of 1.93 metres (6’4”). ‘The report of the Joint
Working Party on Appointment Provisions’ (1988) makes a number of important points
about the height requirements and in particular the relationship with
strength. It says “some research suggests a physiological
relationship between height and strength and that a smaller person might be
unable to match the physical demands of the Fire Service”. The report dismisses this however as a weak
argument on the basis that “individuals
strength can be assessed by specific strength tests and these themselves are
likely to result in the rejection of smaller candidates”.
1.17 The report also states that the height
range that was introduced in the 1988 regulations is necessary because of the
team environment in which the Service operates and wide ranging differences in
height could mean that uneven weight distribution when carrying equipment provides
a difficult or even dangerous situation.
The report also quotes the Health and Safety Executive Manual Handling
Regulations which states, “when a load
is to be handled by two or more persons ideally the members of the teams should
be of similar height and physique”.
1.18 The Working Party report also says that
height is an important issue with regard to existing fire appliance design (and
therefore the sunken costs) and the use of the equipment it carries. Specific reference is made to the stowage of
ladders and the problems of lowering gantries and causing an impact hazard to
firefighters.
1.19 The report claims that “these arguments, combined with the expense
involved in any major re-design of appliances, provides strong grounds for
keeping the 1.68 metres (5’6”) minimum height limit.” It goes on to say “it appears that any alteration to accommodate
smaller firefighters could be achieved only with possible detriment to the
effectiveness of the appliances for firefighting requirements since although
vehicles with smaller capacity could be used on occasions, their use is clearly
limited”. In its recommendations the
report describes the above as “conclusive practical arguments” for retaining
the minimum height limit for entry.
1.20 At the time of writing new research into
the relationship of height and strength commissioned by the Home Office ‘Joint
Committee of the Central Fire Brigades Advisory Council’, is being
undertaken. The research is being carried
out by the Robins Institute at the University of Surrey and has yet to report
its findings. It is understood,
however, that the research is based on
task analysis and measurement of the
task dimensions, forces and loads applied in a number of specific activities
already in common practice.
1.21 Preliminary analysis shows that people
under the height of 5’6” and indeed women, are able to carry out a number of
the functions and tasks of fire fighting.
There may be a greater percentage of shorter people who are unable to
carry out the more demanding tasks but more precise information on this will
not be available until the report is completed. A concern however, is that the analysis that has been carried out
is based on a study of existing work practices and ergonomic issues already in
use. It seems unlikely that the
research will consider task analysis
based on what might be possible with re-designed appliances and equipment.
1.22 To be objective the tasks themselves and
standard operating practices and procedures also need to be questioned and
analysed and must give proper regard to the recommendations of the Manual
Handling of Loads Regulations. Once
this is completed it will mean that the entry criteria that follows is based on
the task of firefighting and not solely on the design and use of current
equipment and appliances.
1.23 The relative heights of women and
men by age (Appendix 3) shows that the minimum height requirement of
1.68 metres (5’6”) excludes 91% of women from applying to be a firefighter but
only 24% of men. If the height
requirement was reduced to 5’4” (for example) this would still exclude 71% of
women but only 8% of men. For the
employer to demonstrate that a height requirement is not unlawful
discrimination they would be required to demonstrate that the requirement is
justifiable and that the criteria is based on a real need and could be proven to be operationally
necessary for the job in question. The
Commission point out that justification could not be provided by other means
“e.g. the purchase or modification of equipment”. Furthermore, it would need to be demonstrated that individuals
below or above (in the case of the Fire Service) the height range could not
perform the relevant tasks satisfactorily.
It would appear that even when the work of the Robins Institute has been
completed these final points will
not have been answered.
1.24 The implications are clear, the Fire
Service is an organisation lacking real commitment to the issues of recruitment
and retention of women firefighters. The problems which need to be overcome,
however, may have more deeply rooted attitudes or perceptions about the job of
a firefighter and the ‘role’ of women.
A greater understanding of such issues is vital to gaining commitment to
change. Some of these issues are dealt with in the following chapters.
2.1 Economic and employment trends in the 80’s
and 90’s together with woman’s greater desire for financial independence have
increased the number of women in full and part time employment. Social
perceptions about equality in the workplace mean that many large organisations
such as Rank Xerox and Barclays Bank now see this issue as a key component of
the ‘package’ that leads to competitive
advantage (Appendix 4). The effect
is that those organisations like the Fire Service that do not have sound and
active equality policy and practice may be regarded as hidebound and out dated
and must therefore be devoid of modern management practices. The expectation therefore, may be that the
Company will deliver low quality goods
or services. The image that the Fire
Service has in respect of EO, is one
that it deserves, unlikely to be what it wants, certainly not what it needs.
2.2 The legal pressures for the recruitment of
women into the Fire Service have to a large extent, up until now, failed to
bring about a significant change. If
the Service is to address this, as well as giving attention to the image issue,
managers of the Fire Service will also need to consider what advantages, if
any, would be provided by employing women in the Fire Service and whether or
not women have technical or physical skills and attributes which would enhance service delivery. Only when this has been resolved will the
Service be able to either show that women in general are not suited to the job
of firefighting, or that they are. This information can then be used to enable
it to move beyond the ‘tokenism’ of employing women to avoid criticism to then
overcome resistance and thus enable a rigorous and positive action planning so
that change can commence.
2.3 The objective therefore is to apply the
marketing test of determining what would be the “tangible benefits” (Kotler - 1991) of employing women as
operational firefighters. In a
sales/purchase scenario there is a purchaser/provider split. In this case the organisation, (the Fire and
Rescue Service) is seen as the buyer
and the legal and social demands
for equality can be seen as the provider.
It can be argued that hitherto the purchaser has failed to identify a
professional need for women in this capacity.
Some Fire Brigades, such as HFRS, are still in the desire phase as a purchaser whilst others have moved into the want
phase and have demonstrated fairness and equality by employing women and
therefore they have satisfied this want.
Few Fire Brigades, if any, have actually reached the stage where they
recognise that there is a clear need
for women in the Service for purposes other than image.
2.4 In advancing this discussion it’s worth
considering remarks made by Joanne Foster, Chair of the EOC, in a BBC
television interview in 1990. When asked the question “Do you want women
to be equivalent or identical to men in the workplace?” she replied
“Equivalent.” She went on to say, “an
important issue is to recognise and make use of the differences between the
genders rather than pretend that as a species there is no difference”. This is a particularly important and relevant
statement. Recognition that women are
different and not identical to men,
acknowledges that women may possess different skills and qualities or at
least differing levels of the same skills.
If this is so, can an organisation possess all the personal and physical
attributes necessary to provide effective delivery of services when it is not
utilising the ‘special’ abilities of approximately half of the labour market?
2.5 In a technical paper to the Journal of
Economic Studies, Zafiris Tzannatos (1988) observed “Women constitute
potentially a large part of the economy’s endowment and much may be gained from
a better and more productive utilisation of Britain’s most unused/misused
resource”. Tzannatos goes on to
say “..... that women’s occupational
attainment may not be solely affected by employment discrimination but may
rather depend on a more complex set of institutional factors”. This further suggests that the law may be
working in part but attitudes are not changing.
2.6 The issue for the managers to address is to
consider whether the qualities that
women posses, unique or otherwise, have a place in the Fire Service. Broverman,
Clarkson, Rosenkrantz and Vogel (1970) describe a mentally healthy woman, compared
to a man, as “more submissive, less aggressive, less competitive, less
independent, less adventurous, more easily influenced, more easily excitable in
minor crises, more easily hurt, more sensitive, more emotional, more conceited
about appearance, less objective and less interest in maths or science”. Although these observations may be
considered subjective and anecdotal it is suggested that these are widely held
views, particularly by men. Added to this is the widespread belief in the Fire
Service that women are not strong enough to be firefighters. Perceptions also
exist that women’s performance during periods could be hazardous and that women
are illogical.
2.7 These perceptions are examined in the next chapter.
However, the relevance of these beliefs is that they can have the effect
of creating “patriarchal beliefs about
women’s natural and biological inferiority” Spencer and Podmore (1987). This can have such a powerful influence as
to create a “patriarchal prison” Morgan (1993). Morgan goes on to say “so long as organisations are dominated by
patriarchal values and structures the roles of women in organisations will
always be played out on ‘male’ terms”.
He also observes that this explains why feminists advocate that the real
challenge facing women is to change organisational values in the most
fundamental sense.
2.8 In strategic terms therefore, the effective
recruitment and retention of women as firefighters will probably
rest on the ability to convince the Organisation and its workforce that
many of the beliefs are unfounded or irrelevant and that service delivery could
be more effective if women’s
skills were employed. Having convinced the organisation then it
becomes a matter of persuading the same people that the economic investment
necessary for change is justified when considered alongside the ‘tangible
benefits’ that will be achieved.
2.9 Although this approach could be considered
unnecessary in the light of the legislative demands on the organisation the fact is legislation in this area hitherto
has failed or at best achieved only moderate success. The process proposed here is based on a need for education. This education and therefore learning is
itself based on recognition of differences between the sexes and exploitation
of the different skills, qualities and attributes that each possesses. The process of education that has existed in
the past has used, as its base, satisfying legislative responsibilities. As a result, little attention has been given
to the needs and feelings of the existing workforce and as such the philosophy
has met large scale resistance. In
change terminology the Service can be said to be still in the ‘denial’ phase
and really needs to be led through ‘compliance’ to ‘commitment’ Kirkbride
(1993).
2.10 There are some examples where Fire
Brigades have moved further along the continuum from the resistance phase to
compliance where, according to Kelman (1961), this is seen as a means to gain
reward or avoid punishment. It can be
argued therefore that where compliance has occurred and Brigades have employed
women as firefighters that this is merely playing the game. This is, of course, an important advance but
it still falls well short of commitment.
Without this commitment the whole process is doomed to failure. If this is so, prosecution of a Fire Brigade may be inevitable. Such an
action will, of course, immediately mobilise resources up and down the country
with Fire Brigades re-doubling their efforts to recruit women. This may move further from the resistance to
the compliance stage and maybe even into conformity, but again it will not
necessarily achieve commitment. The first step will be to question some of the
beliefs that exist about women.
3.1 A closer examination of some of the issues
raised in the previous chapter with regard to women’s perceived qualities and
abilities is necessary in order to develop a strategy for change.
3.2 The suggestion that women are “more
submissive, less aggressive, less competitive and less independent than men” if
accepted as being accurate actually bodes quite well for women in the Fire
Service. The working environment is
highly team orientated and these qualities suggest that not only would women be
equally, if not more effective team players, but their lower levels of
aggression may do something positive for some of the less desirable features of
the culture which are dealt with in the next chapter. The term ‘less adventurous’ could also suggest that women are
less ‘gung ho’ and again more likely to be team players and not go off on their
own individual macho image building pursuits.
3.3 The point about women being more easily
influenced appears to be highly subjective and the evidence shown by women’s
improved position in the labour market suggests that they are no less
determined and single minded than men.
The point about women being more emotional and perhaps more easily hurt
certainly does have a place in the Service:
that is not to say that the Fire Service desires a workforce that wears
its heart on its sleeve. A woman’s
ability or willingness to allow feelings to show or to be discussed more
readily can help their male counterparts develop a wider armoury for dealing
with the stresses and anxieties caused by the job. The notion that women are
more sensitive could also aid operational service delivery, particularly when
dealing with victims of fire, accident or loss.
3.4 If women are more conceited about
appearance this too has its place in the Fire Service since smartness is an
important requirement in a uniformed public
department. The argument that
women are less interested in maths or science may be so, indeed experience has
shown that women undertaking entry tests for the Fire Service do less well in
tests that are mechanical/engineering/physics oriented. This, however, would appear to lie more in
the domain of the education system, particularly if it is desired that the UK
follows the German belief that engineering skills are the route to
quality. It is more important for
schools to advocate subjects which form a base for engineering rather than to
teach them just to satisfy the National Curriculum.
3.5 The issue of women’s strength was dealt
with earlier. Suffice it to say that
the perceptions in the Fire Service have been unfounded and so far no real
evidence of women being physically incapable or disadvantaged on the fireground has been shown, even
though, as already pointed out, women firefighters are still using equipment
and appliances designed for a male workforce.
3.6 The beliefs concerning perceptions of
women during menstruation are probably more deeply rooted and as a result
require more detailed analysis. Despite the fact that empirical research may
prove otherwise the views of menstruation and ability are sufficiently
consistent for the subject to be a clear influence on the behaviour and
attitude of workers and managers alike.
As Sommer (1983) put it “because the menstrual cycle is such a clear
biological distinguishing feature between the sexes.... it has become
intrinsically bound up with gender equality.” When HFRS were asked if they felt
that performance of a woman colleague during periods was a matter of concern
83% said that it was.
3.7 This subject has attracted a great
deal of research much of which has been inconclusive. An important test of
psychological and physiological effects of periods was conducted by Gamberale,
Strindberg and Wahlberg (1975). The results of the tests were that no changes
were detected in heart rate or oxygen up-take throughout the cycle although
pulmonary ventilation was higher in the menstrual phase. Exercise intensity was perceived by the
subjects as being more tiring when undertaken during the menstrual phase albeit
they did not perform any differently.
In the physiological tests the only area of discernible change was in a
choice reaction time test where performance was slightly slower during the
menstrual phase.
3.8 Equally important have been studies
concerning sport and physical activity: Higgs and Robinson (1981) found in
their tests that perceived exertion for work was increased during pre-menstrual
phase although Stephenson, Kolka and Ilkerson (1982) observed no difference at
all in perceived exertion over the different phases of the menstrual cycle in
subjects that they tested.
3.9 More recently Gaston Bates (1987) carried out a study of
female factory workers in which she examined performance, absenteeism and the
attitudes separately of male managers, female managers and the female workers
themselves towards periods. In respect
of performance the research showed that the majority of both best and worst performance scores occurred
during the pre-menstrual phase. In
respect of absenteeism no significant
differences in time lost due to sickness on menstruating and non-menstruating
days were found. If anything, there was
a slight trend towards higher lost time on non-menstruating days than others.
3.10 When the performance of
individual workers was measured against their expected performance it was shown that the deterioration which
they expected did not occur. It also
showed that there was no regular pattern of taking time off at the start of
menstruation despite the fact that most women workers felt that they did
habitually take time off at this stage.
The report concludes if that female workers and female managers
themselves are very negative about the effects of menstruation then it can
hardly be surprising that male fellow workers and indeed male managers would
feel equally negative.
3.11 Whilst it would be inappropriate to
suggest that individual women would not have problems in carrying out physical
demands of the work as a fire-fighter at the time of their period, it is
clearly inappropriate to make generalised and sweeping statements which suggest
that all women would not be capable of performing normally. Indeed, the evidence suggests that
performance reduction is a perception and attitude rather than a reality. In the Fire Service there is great emphasis
on teamwork and in any team endeavour it is unlikely, perhaps even rare, that
all team members will be ‘firing on all four cylinders’ at the same time. For an individual to turn up for work
feeling less than 100% yet still be determined to carry out their job is not
uncommon, the various group and social pressures drive them on. Despite this there is little or no evidence
that fire fighting or emergency rescue operations have been less efficiently
handled because of one or more of the individual members of a crew being a
little under par. Although evidence
about performance reduction during periods is inconclusive the point here is
that even if a woman firefighter did go to work feeling slightly off colour the
practical effects on a team activity such as firefighting may be largely
irrelevant.
3.12 It is worth noting here the significance
of the concept of self-image in a Fire Service scenario, although it is not
known if menstruation was a factor. During this particular case nine men and
one woman had completed the preliminary physical tests during a recruitment
process. The next phase of the test
comprised running out lengths of hose repeatedly almost to the point of
exhaustion. For those who were left a
feeling of team spirit and camaraderie had begun to develop. Earlier in the process two other women had
failed on physical tests. As the hose
running exercise commenced, the remaining woman in the group expressed doubt about her own ability to
carryout the task. All the male
candidates gave encouragement to the
woman and tried to persuade her that she could succeed and pass and indeed that
she was doing well. Nevertheless the
woman repeatedly complained that she felt unable to continue and that it was
too much for her. She apparently felt
that because she was the only woman left unlike the men she would be unable to
pass. Despite the encouragement the
woman gave up, even though she still had stamina and strength in reserve. The male candidates felt disappointed and
dejected that yet another candidate had been lost but especially because they
believed that she could have completed the task.
3.13 In the context of self image, the woman
arguably convinced herself that she would not achieve the standard required
because she was a woman or rather because she was not a man and that her belief
was that men could cope satisfactorily but she as a woman would not be able to. The lesson here is that retention of women
particularly during basic training may to a large extent depend on a
recognition of the additional confidence building that is necessary to overcome
possible negative feelings or feelings of self doubt.
3.14 Women are illogical! Most people
expressing such views however, rarely have evidence to support the belief and
as a result the concept is largely dismissed.
Nevertheless, it is jokes of this kind that give rise to the myths and beliefs
of individuals and assist the formation of attitudes. This in turn could give rise to a covert and systemic
discrimination against women and therefore have an influence over the working
relationships between the two sexes. In HFRS 57% of the staff questioned
expressed concern at the potential ability of a woman colleague to make
decisions in difficult situations. It
is therefore worth considering whether there is any evidence to support this
belief or the contrary and what the
consequences for the coexistence of men with women in the same fire fighting
team might be.
3.15 One method of contextualising the
decision making of women is to look at it from the point of view of where power
exists. To this end an examination of
women as managers or making managerial decisions provides the
contextualisation. Management is often
seen, in the West, as a powerful single minded male dominated function. To reach such positions of responsibility,
control and power, women have had to work
harder and fight to overcome many male (and female) prejudices. Interestingly, men who fight to reach higher
levels of responsibility are regarded as ambitious, women with the same desire
are often seen as trouble makers, feminists or crusaders.
3.16 A study was carried out by Donnell and
Hall (1980) of managerial behaviours of 19,000 managers to try to reveal
differences in behaviour by gender. The
study looked at five areas; managerial philosophy, dynamics, participative
practices, inter-personal competence and managerial style. In the study no
significant difference between the genders was found in four of the five
subject areas. However, there was some
differences identified in what was referred to as inter-personal competence, it
showed that women were less open and candid than male colleagues and were less
willing to share data with their peers, perhaps partly based on the notion that
knowledge is power.
3.17 In a further piece of research Conlan
(1987) examined four different hypotheses to see if there were any circumstances
where people were more willing to take the risk of sharing power. Conlan’s findings were that, in general,
when women are given power or authority they do not wish to surrender it, even
when financial rewards exist. However,
when the inter-personal element is removed and there is no threat of loss of
power, the decision making practices and behaviour of men and women are almost
identical.
3.18 The implications of such findings should
be of interest to the Fire Service. Although the evidence suggests that women
are capable in decision making processes of behaving like a man, the struggle
that women have, and continue to
undergo, to achieve recognition appears to be an influence when their actions
could result in a loss of position or status.
As a result where the recognition they have achieved, perhaps in the
form of power, is under threat, a different behaviour can occur.
3.19 Women entering the Fire Service have
experienced similar struggles. The
struggles for recognition and to be treated on equal terms which women have
endured is something that men in the Fire Service are unlikely to experience
and even less likely to be able to
comprehend.
3.20 The following examination of the culture of
the Fire Service explains why some of the above perceptions
may exist and gives an indication of, the levels of conscious and unconscious
resistance towards women as firefighters which exist in the workforce and
therefore the extent of the task that awaits managers.
4.1 Analysis of the culture of the Fire
Service may provide an understanding of why the perceptions referred to above
have developed and why it is therefore that the reaction to women entering the
Service has been largely negative.
4.2 Culture has been defined in several
ways: “Unique configuration of norms,
values, beliefs, ways of behaving and so on that characterise the manner in
which groups and individuals combine to get things done”. The distinctiveness of a particular
organisation is “manifested in the folklore, laws and in the ideology to which
members defer, as well as the strategic choices made by the organisation as a
whole” (Eldridge and Cromby 1974). The
fundamental concept of culture is that it consists of “shared meanings and
understandings which influence members’ perceptions of events (organisation and
otherwise) and it is out of that filtered perception that meaningful action
arises” (Johnson and Gill 1993).
4.3 Being a uniformed service with strong
historical links with the armed forces, particularly the Navy, it is not
surprising that the Service has a myriad of standard practices, rules and
procedures. In a practical sense this
includes firefighters parading at change of shift, standing to attention and
saluting senior officers and generally operating in a semi-military
environment. New recruits undergo a
form of cultural indoctrination where the emphasis is on discipline and
obedience. This process has been
defended for decades on the basis that high levels of discipline are vital to
ensure that orders are obeyed quickly
at the scene of a fire and without question.
4.4 At station and watch level there is a
high level of repetitive training and routine work, carried out in preparation
for emergency operations. Emergency
work, in reality, represents a fairly small proportion of the use of
their time. Nevertheless, firefighters
pride themselves on their state of preparedness and when called upon to attend
emergency incidents frequently refer to “good jobs” which normally means that
it was a demanding operational situation in which their skills were used or
tested well, collectively or as an individual.
4.5 The
function of firefighters at an emergency incident relies very heavily on
teamwork and the use of combined skills in an effective manner. Failure can be life threatening either to
victims of fire or even to each other.
At firefighter level, therefore, a great deal of trust is required for
the team to work effectively, failure
of an individual that threatens the safety of a colleague is seen a heinous
crime and one that is not easily
forgiven. The high level of dependency
on each other’s skills creates a good
team spirit. When this dependency is
successfully put to the test at an operational incident special bonds can be
formed that go beyond those normal in other occupational relationships.
4.6 Another important feature of
behaviour on the shopfloor is the humour and practical joking. The old adage “if you can’t stand a joke you
shouldn’t have joined” is particularly apposite to the Fire Service. From early on in their career, firefighters
experience and practice a wide variety of practical jokes and it is generally
believed that an individual’s ability to accept the “wind ups” is a measure of
their manliness and group acceptance.
Despite this apparent ritualistic “bullying” the bond that exists
between firefighters does not weaken easily even though 68% of HFRS staff felt
that it often went too far.
4.7 On a fire station humour is often
used as a resistance to the
bureaucratic rules and procedures that exist and also to the routine work that
is less appealing and less exciting than being involved in an operational
incident. Humour used as resistance in
this way has the additional bonus of providing “a paternalistic device which
provides subordinates with a feeling of belonging to the family” (Pollert
1981).
4.8 Joking can be seen therefore as group
conformity that combines to resist the control mechanisms that are part of the
bureaucratic processes. This is all
well and good when the focus of humour is the establishment, however, much of
the banter takes the form of mickey taking, or bullying of individuals and such
treatment can have a damaging effect.
It is often suggested that underneath the hard exterior firefighters are
“big softies” and as Collinson (1993) observes “behind this image of toughness,
masculinity and apparent ability to withstand ridicule from others is an
acknowledgement that jibes can, and do, hurt ...”
4.9 Humour is also used as a control
mechanism to check sibling rivalry or where a group member threatens to leave
the nest. It is also used to control deviants who are not pulling their
weight. This is particularly important
when the group doesn’t have formal leadership e.g. when carrying out routine
tasks around the fire station and task achievement is determined by collective
effort. Where this type of social
control fails, conflict between group members can occur or management will be
required to intervene. Humour can be
seen therefore as a tool to be used
for conformity, control or
importantly self-differentiation. This latter point is returned to
later.
4.10 To satisfy the operational demands
of firefighters’ job, high levels
of training and discipline have been
used to create a very task oriented workforce. Emergency situations demanding
firefighters’ attention, once resolved, often attract accolades from the
recipients of services. This in turn can develop a narcissism among
firefighters which is perpetuated by
the image of hero(ine) which
firefighters feel that they are generally held in. Conversely, after an emergency incident where their services are
not required, firefighters often feel lethargic, dis-spirited and
dejected. This has often been regarded
as a product of excess unspent
adrenaline, it could equally be due to
a lack of fulfilment and recognition.
4.11 In recent years firefighters have been
taking on more specialist fire safety enforcement work. This was extremely unpopular at first, not least
of all because firefighters lacked the requisite skills and confidence. However, an additional feature was that
firefighters, having been cast in the traditional role of hero, are now being
seen in the community as ‘villains’
with this policing role being seen in a negative way. Firefighters disliked doing it because “it was not what they
joined the job to for”. The lack of
kudos derived from this type of work may also be a factor.
4.12 The status that male firefighters have
apparently developed is influenced by other external and internal factors. For
example, according to Collinson “individuals are placed on a hierarchical scale
of legitimacy and value to the community ...”.
As an occupation firefighting can be seen as an important service, as a
result a “group think” (Morgan 1993) has emerged whereby the Fire Service as a
whole has elevated its position and status. Consequently a group culture and
shared identity has developed in which the workforce is highly valued perhaps
even seen as special. In so doing the
group may have developed an attitude about itself that negates the validity,
value or status of others who are outside the group. The group then becomes
elitist and those who try to enter their world find it necessary to demonstrate
that they possess all the ‘special’ attributes of the group. Collinson refers to this group status
elevation as “collective critical
narcissism” and that this process in itself elevates the group identity still
further. This ‘self-differentiation’,
Hern Shepherd et al (1989), has the effect of dismissing women as potential members of the group on the basis
that they are incompatible with the shared group identity. In this respect HFRS
firefighters were asked their views about
working with women, 64% of the respondents expressed concern.
4.13 An example of how ‘group think’ can be
formed and transformed can be illustrated by a situation which occurred among a
group of 12 firefighters. One member of
the watch, something of a ring leader, reported that he had visited a colleague
at his home address whilst off duty and ‘caught’ him doing the ironing. Very quickly all members of the watch joined
in the mickey taking at this involvement in what was described as “women’s
work”.
4.14 One member of the group, however,
challenged the ring leader and suggested that in this day and age it is quite
normal for men to share domestic responsibilities and admitted that he himself
did the ironing. He then asked
individuals, including the ring leader, if they actually did ironing
themselves. Very quickly the mood
changed and a number of people slowly ‘admitted’ that they too did the
ironing. Eventually a new ‘group think’
was formed, one in which it was
acceptable, perhaps normal, to do such work and the few who preferred to maintain their previous stance became
marginalised.
4.15 Another key element within a male
dominated group is the importance of masculinity. Male firefighters
frequently comment that women; cannot do the job or that they are not
strong enough and they are only trying
to prove a point, “this is a man’s job” etc.
Comments such as this underpin the general belief that male firefighters
see themselves as something special, and that the qualities needed to be a
firefighter cannot be possessed by women. Acceptance that women could do the
job would be to shatter this belief, unless women could prove that they could
do the job according to the existing rules and criteria, i.e. as if a man. As a result it may even be necessary for a
woman to act or behave like a man if
shattering the male firefighters
illusion is to be avoided.
4.16 The traditional male image of that of
the family bread winner and the sense
of freedom and superiority that being a wage earner provides, particularly
within the domestic environment cannot be ignored. To test attitudes among HFRS firefighters personnel were asked,
if they would prefer their partner not
to work. 76% said that they would prefer this arrangement. These results
further strengthen the dominant status that male firefighters believe they have
or would like to develop.
4.17 The lure of men into an organisation
with such a macho image could also be based on a notion that male firefighters
have high sexual drive. As in other
male dominated groups it is not
uncommon on fire stations for one or more members of a group to boast of sexual experience. Pictures of naked females are also common place in firefighters’
lockers and even those that do not boast about their own sexuality frequently associate
themselves with this sexuality myth through jokes, innuendo and anecdotes. DiTomaso (1987) suggests that men in the
workplace participate in a power play in which sexuality and masculinity are
used to put women into what they consider to be their proper and subordinate
role in relation to men.
4.18 Behaviour that takes the form of
harassment is more likely to occur when women abandon the traditionally
subordinate occupations and instead seek ‘men’s jobs’. When carrying out jobs that are seen as
subordinate women appear not to experience sexual discrimination or harassment
in the same way. It is only when they
challenge for so called men’s jobs that
this phenomenon occurs. Collinson
describes the behaviour of individuals and groups in the masculinity/sexuality
argument as being a process to “enhance
occupational status, dignity and identity”.
Furthermore he suggests that “this subjective pre-occupation with the affirmation
of dignity and identity .... inevitably
generates a vulnerability and instability in self that leads to highly volatile
shopfloor relations”. Whilst life on
the shopfloor in the Fire Service is not particularly volatile, certainly the
ingredients exist for conflict to occur particularly during periods of boredom
and monotony. Conversely, many of the
petty squabbles that can develop reduce significantly during periods of high
operational activity. The potential for conflict must rise where this
occupational status is perceived to be threatened by the co-existence of women in the workplace.
4.19 These issues raise a number of questions
about how firefighters see themselves. Whether or not firefighters do see
themselves as heroes, breadwinners, special or superior (including
sexually) either individually or as a
group. If they do see themselves in
this way then how fragile is this image?
Does it need to be continually reinforced and if so what are the
obstacles to reinforcement, what are the threats, are women a
threat? DiTomaso suggests that men see
women in the workplace as women rather than as co-workers and therefore cannot
conspire with them in the same bonding sense and therefore cannot enjoy the
same camaraderie. The Fire Service can
be seen to possess a highly masculine culture and although in many ways it is overt,
the protection of it may be largely unconscious. A failure to recognise the cultural issues or manage them may
well be the reason for the limited
success in the recruitment of female firefighters so far.
4.20 Further evidence of the type
of environment that women could face can be drawn from the experience of a
woman teacher with an interest in gender relations who visited HFRS Fire and
Rescue Service on a teacher placement programme. She was interviewed to establish her feelings and perceptions formed
about the organisation during the course of the placement.
4.21 She reported an overwhelming
sense of masculine symbolism within the
organisation. This is reflected by the
initial entry into the Headquarters building.
A variety of photographs depicting
men in action adorn the
reception area. This view was developed when the first room that the
teacher was taken, a coffee lounge, had pictures of former Chief Fire Officers (all
male) hung on walls. The room also
housed a trophy cabinet which was filled with trophies “depicting competitive and masculine
pursuits”. The teacher also went
on to say that she had formed the impression that a great deal of bullying and
put-downs were tolerated, both sexual and non-sexual.
4.22 There was also a view that the
organisation had a pre-occupation with separatist activities, uniform, canteen
and toilet facilities etc., and that this was surprising in a workforce where
all officers had risen through the ranks. The teacher also observed that people
in the organisation ‘know their place’.
Further demonstrating the inequalities that exist and perhaps the
feeling by some of being undervalued, not trusted and intellectually inferior.
4.23 Another observation was that
managers, spend much of their time carrying out token actions as a cover-up or
as a disguise for lack of real action e.g. policy statements and procedures
which are written but not enforced. This
has obvious implications when dealing with issues such as EO. In contrast
however, HFRS staff felt that managers were far less likely to engage in
discriminatory practices than firefighters.
4.24 The foregoing observations suggest
that the ‘obstacles’ to women becoming
firefighters, such as height, strength, physiological and biological
capabilities, may be simply being put up as a convenient, and perhaps unconscious, smoke screen to
defend the existing group identity. It
is logical therefore for any strategy that is designed to recruit and retain
women as operational firefighters focuses on recognition of the need to
maintain the status and value of male
firefighters. At the same time self
differentiation practices should be played down and the belief that women do
posses attributes that could enhance service delivery such as sensitivity, team
oriented and less aggression, should be promoted. The strategy will also need to take account of the experiences so far of women as
firefighters to ensure that the mistakes and bad practices of the past are
avoided. This latter issue is dealt
with next.
5.1 This chapter records a number of specific
occurrences that have given rise to women firefighters feeling isolated,
frightened, depressed, picked on, inferior, unwanted and often very miserable
about their ‘survival’ in the service.
The reports which follow come from a number of different sources:
interviews with female firefighters, a study carried out by Devine (1992),
newspaper and magazine articles, discussions with officers in Brigade EO
departments and the EOC. All of the women who provided information, directly or
indirectly, reported that they had given frequent consideration to leaving due
to the additional pressures they had experienced because of their gender.
5.2 The stories which follow provide Fire
Service managers who are serious about recruiting and retaining women in the
Service with a number of critical issues to deal with and show that inequality
and harassment is not isolated or restricted to places, situations or phases.
Moreover it appears to be continuous and at times relentless.
Case Studies
Whilst attending
residential training school;
5.3 “I
felt particularly lonely and at times desperate..... it was difficult for me
because I was away from home and they put me in a separate dormitory as
well. The men were all on one side of
the building and I was on the other on my own.
I used to cry my eyes out at night.
I could hear all the men having a laugh ....”
5.4 One
reported that fellow recruits went out and got drunk towards the end of the
course and on return tried to get into her room at 2 o’clock in the
morning. She reported that they were
“like a pack of wild animals. I had the
feeling that if they had got in it could have got completely out of hand and we
would have ended up in a gang bang situation.
I was petrified. I curled up under the bed clothes saying
‘please God let it stop soon’.” The men had apparently wanted to dye her hair for
a laugh.
5.5 “The
instructor’s attitude towards the squad is vitally important. If the instructor treats somebody as if they
shouldn’t be there or if they are useless then everybody treats them like
that.” One instructor boasted “Every woman I have had here I have had in
tears. They all end up crying.” Another did his best to undermine the
confidence of a woman recruit saying that she would not make it through the
course and that she would finish before the third week. Another woman recruit experienced an
instructor telling the men in the squad who weren’t doing very well “you’re
crap but the tart’s done really well.”
Another case reported was where the instructor, in referring to the
woman recruit, said to male members of a squad “What kind of men are you if you
haven’t screwed the firewoman yet?”.
5.6 The
experiences in training were summed up by one woman, “If you are a woman and
you make a mistake then everyone looks at it and says it’s because you’re a
woman. If a man makes a mistake on the
course it is not really taken any notice of...... I was told that I only had
one chance in training school and that if I was injured I would not be back
squaded, I would be out.” She said “I
didn’t understand why it was different for me but I didn’t question it, I just
knew I couldn’t fail - I just couldn’t.
It was a time of tremendous pressure, I cried a lot in private.”
On the station;
5.7 One
woman was told by her Station Officer, “you only completed the course because
you’re a woman and black”.
5.8 One
firefighter was subjected to sexual harassment to the extent that she took action against her employers for failing to
have adequate procedures in place,
Appendix 5.
5.9 One
explained “I felt obliged to swear and behave in a coarse manner to make the
men feel at ease”. By doing so she was forced to subvert her
own feminism and try to appear as or to behave as a man. She explained “there is no guide to say this
is how you behave, there are no role models to emulate”.
5.10 One
woman reported that she felt confident and was treated equally throughout her basic training. As she said “at that stage we were all
recruits together, all struggling to complete the course”. She reported that she completed the course
as well as most and enjoyed the training, she felt that she had done well. However, “the patronising and bullying that followed after I was posted to a fire
station immediately destroyed my confidence ....it took me over seven years to
recover”.
5.11 One
also reported that many colleagues had been interrogated by female partners
about sleeping arrangements and general relationships on the station. In some
albeit isolated cases men had asked for transfers to all male watches to “stop
the grief they were getting from home”. Concern on this issue was tested among
HFRS staff, 34% said that would be concerned about the reaction of a partner.
5.12 There
was also a general feeling that, ‘the devil makes work for idle hands’. Boredom often brings about problems and as a
result women felt that they should be allowed to find their feet at a busy
station where the opportunity for pranks, bullying and harassment would be
lower.
5.13 There
was a strong feeling that equality of any kind in the workplace is not easily
gained and problems are not just based on gender. Where disparate levels of experience or rank occur inequality
often follows. There was concern and sometimes dis-belief at what male
firefighters were prepared to do to raise their status at the expense of other
more junior or perhaps different colleagues.
Reference was also made to the
paradox of the firefighter being both a carer
and a bully. For example it was reported that a male
recruit was assaulted by other male workers with a snooker cue; seemingly as a message to women of what
could happen to them.
5.14 Many
of those interviewed reported experiencing an
overwhelming sense of isolation and that real contact with other women
firefighters is vitally important and
would have helped to alleviate much of the feeling of depression.
On procedures;
5.15 One
firefighter reported that standing procedures stated that at no time should one male and one female firefighter be in
the dormitory alone. This was
transferred into a variety of other situations. The result was that often when she approached another colleague
who was on his own they would frequently walk away; if there were two or more
present they would remain. The woman
reported that until she understood what was going on she felt unwanted and
wondered if she had a personal hygiene problem.
5.16 An
example of the clumsiness or ill-preparedness of Fire Brigades is illustrated
by the fact that all the women consulted had experienced delays with the issue
of their uniform. In some cases the delays for certain items went on for 18 months.
5.17 One
woman reported continuing problems with the subject of hair style. Standing Orders advised that hair should be
pinned up and not be allowed to shake loose.
This particular woman had changed her hair length on numerous occasions
for personal and social reasons but also to try and accommodate the changing
rules concerning what was acceptable to the Fire Service. Recently she had been given approval from
her watch and Station Commander to wear her hair up in a pony-tail which was
high enough to be covered by her helmet or cap and therefore maintain
appearance as well as being safe. At a
large fire a more senior officer ordered the woman from the fireground on the
basis that her hair was dangerous. She
was re-instated to normal duties the following day with approval for her hair
to be worn in the existing style.
5.18 There
was a commonly held belief that the role of management is vitally
important. Officers themselves being
predominantly male and born of the same culture often perpetuate problems
themselves creating their own myths, working to their own ideologies. At best they are often clumsy in their
application of rules and procedures at worst, bigoted. In HFRS staff seem
confident about how to report discriminatory behaviour or harassment but are
much less confident about how it would be dealt with. When it comes to equality
issues, some of the experiences so far, give cause for concern.
5.19 The
women interviewed generally felt that in the absence of female role models they
look very much to their officers for leadership, strength and guidance. They
demand consistent and fair treatment and action from them when they (the women)
become victims of unfair treatment or harassment.
5.20 Having
gender noted is not in itself an issue, the problem was that of not being
recognised as an equal. One reported
that one of the highlights of her career had been after about eight years,
whilst attending a large exercise, a senior officer was debriefing crews and
was pointing out the individual activities that had been performed, both in a
positive and negative sense, providing praise and criticism for jobs done well
or where mistakes had been made. The
officer specifically referred to her particular performance, fairly and equally
to all other crew members. Despite the fact that the comment included some
criticism she was elated at being recognised as a member of the team as an
equal.
5.21 Prior
to the appointment of firefighters to
one station which had a reputation for being a ‘plum’ posting, a senior officer
visited the station and advised the all male station personnel that two women
were being posted there. The officer
told personnel that anybody who caused trouble as far as the women were
concerned would be transferred to
another station. As a result it was
months before the women were spoken to
because their male colleagues were frightened to say or do the wrong thing and
be reported for it.
5.22 A
strong survival instinct exists among
women firefighters with frequent comments
that women should not allow themselves to become a victim. Comments were made like “if you let them get
away with it ......”. In this respect
reference was made to the shop at the Fire Service College, renowned as being a
centre of educational excellence for the Fire Service. The shop had on sale an apron that
caricatured a male firefighter and a female in the role of victim being rescued
and therefore dependant upon the male. This was challenged by a woman
firefighter whilst she was a student at the College, the result of which a
senior officer asked “What do you want us to do to make you happy?”. She believed this demonstrated a complete
lack of empathy and understanding of
the kind of image that the Fire Service perpetuates.
5.23 When asked the question why
it was that they put up with the continuous bullying, harassment and innuendoes
the response was unanimous and had nothing to do with equality, human rights,
principles, crusades or determination. The reason given was that they all
thoroughly enjoyed being a firefighter. They enjoyed the action, the sense of
achievement and the feeling of doing a worthwhile job. They also enjoyed the camaraderie, when it
was there. As one put it “when you get
out on the fireground and get stuck in you forget about all the crap that goes
on at the station. It makes it all
worth while when you know you have done a good job”. This is the reason that most male firefighters give for doing the
job.
5.24 Despite their negative experiences women were generally pragmatic. They felt that talks by officers prior to their arrival on watches and indeed at training school, though full of good intentions, did more harm than good and that subsequently the men’s behaviour was often born out of fear of the unknown. One stated that all the tests given to her by officers were designed to prove that she couldn’t do the job rather than to test to see if she could. Another observed that life in the Fire Service is about proving yourself, “as soon as you have proved yourself in training school you have to prove yourself as a probationer, then prove yourself on the fireground. If you take examinations for promotion you then have to prove yourself as a junior officer and so on. If you move watches you constantly have to re-prove yourself in a different situation”. This is experienced by both sexes but clearly it adds to the struggle in the case of women.
6.1 The EOC describes the situation in
this country and particularly in organisations such as the Fire Service, as
having an “Inequality Gap”. It goes on to say that “sex discrimination is
neither lawful nor acceptable. It wastes talents and resources and denies human
rights” It further states that this gap persists in a number of ways including
“fixed notions about male and female roles and capabilities”.
6.2 To pave the way towards closing the
gap and to achieve sustained recruitment and retention of women in firefighting
posts, a long term, strategic and incremental approach incorporating a wide
range of tactics and covering a wide range of key issues is required. The
following actions drawn from the conclusions of the study will have a
considerable impact on creating the right environment for equality in the Fire
Service. To achieve success there must be a major change in some of the
fundamental beliefs on which the culture of the organisation, including its
managers, is based. Implementation of a culture change programme represents the
most challenging of managerial tasks,
particularly if commitment rather than compliance is the objective.
CONCLUSION
6.3 The
Fire Service currently lacks sincere commitment to the recruitment of women
firefighters largely because of the strong denial to recognise or acknowledge
any real benefit. Where it has occurred it has had only a token effect and
unfair treatment has been widespread.
6.4 The
workforce needs to be aware of what the stance and objectives of the Organisation
are followed by a change to a culture
of one that accepts women as equal in the workplace. The transition will take
time and effort and will go through a number of phases: denial and resistance(the current position), conformity
and compliance followed by commitment and renewal. It is important to recognise
that this will be a gradual and strategic process and not one that will respond
to the normal firefighting ‘quick-fix’ style of the Fire Service.
6.5 The
Service should begin by making a clear declaration of the organisation’s goal,
or mission statement, reinforced by clearly understood objectives and then
develop a plan to achieve the stated objectives. One method of gaining
commitment is to involve key personnel in the early stages of the policy making
process. When put into a workshop type
setting where discussion and debate can follow in a controlled environment,
fears can be aired and understanding will develop much quicker than by just
issuing a policy statement. Targets and objectives for the organisation to
achieve must be set together with an action plan for implementation.
Importantly the commitment of these staff
to seeing the policy successfully implemented will create vital ‘agents
of change’, starting at fire station level, which can assist this ‘corrosive’
process.
6.6 The
policy statement must bring the
subject alive and appear as active,
integral and dynamic rather than passive or a fringe activity. Statements such as
“..... is an equal opportunity employer” does nothing to inspire confidence
that the company is the home of EO best
practice. A statement such as
“Hertfordshire Fire and Rescue Service desires a workforce that reflects the
community it serves and values and
respects the employment rights of women and men regardless of colour or origin”
may convey a more active impression. The policy statement should then be
underpinned by an action plan to convey “the message” to the organisation
through training, workshops etc. followed by monitoring and subsequent
amendment of the plan. This will keep the process dynamic.
6.7 It
will be important not to underestimate the need to value the existing
workforce. Male firefighters could develop the notion that women firefighters
are now favoured and that their skills and expertise are no longer
required. Managers must ensure that
this does not happen by reassuring and giving praise and recognition whenever
it is due particularly to those who willingly embrace the new gender policy
issues. This concept of reward will
make use of a transactional style of management to win over reluctant staff
whilst a transformational style of leadership can be used for the more willing
and the middle ground.
6.8 The
effective manager will recognise that there will be technical reasons
for resistance (Tichy et al (1990), e.g.; the traditional view that change is
not necessary or because of the financial impact of modifying accommodation,
equipment etc.. They should also be aware of the political reasons such
as conflict of views between the modern and traditional image of the Service.
6.9 Managers
must also recognise that programmes and campaigns often have a backlash, in the
form of resentment etc., particularly where the direct relationship to
effective Service delivery cannot necessarily be seen. It will
be important for the benefits of EO policy to the organisation to be
constantly re-stated and maintained as a primary agenda item but without the
manager becoming an evangelist.
6.10 Managers
themselves do not always employ good EO practice and often fail to provide the
appropriate leadership.
RECOMMENDATION
6.11 Gaining
top management commitment and sharing of the vision of successful EO and gender
relations within the organisation is vital. This issue is particularly relevant
in view of the comments made earlier about senior managers evolving from the
same culture as firefighters. If the
workforce gains the impression that policy on EO is a case of ‘don’t do as I
do.... do as I say’ the policy and the process will fail.
6.12 Managers
should receive training and then practice what they preach; signalling is an
important way of getting corporate messages across. For a hierarchical
organisation which has a high dependency on instructions the signalling concept
also provides role models that the workforce will quickly follow. Managers should champion EO best practice
at every opportunity. This will mean at
times taking difficult decisions such as decrying or banning such practices as
pin-up posters, showing of pornographic videos, ‘men’s’ (and women’s)
magazines. Pranks, jokes and behaviour that subordinate or offend one gender
should also be prevented. Managers themselves will also have to ensure that
their own behaviour is above reproach.
6.13 Both
bullying and harassment can be psychologically harmful, are illegal and breach
fundamental principles of human rights, there is insufficient knowledge,
understanding and information on equality within the organisation.
RECOMMENDATION
6.14 Adopting
a ‘family’ of information leaflets covering such issues as the policy,
bullying, harassment etc., can be an effective way of underpinning corporate philosophy. Leaflets should also contain information on
procedures and should emphasise that it is every individual’s right to be free
from unfair treatment. Leaflets on how
to complain for example should ensure that the complainant feels confident that
action will be taken and they will not be treated as a trouble maker (therefore
subject to further victimisation or harassment) for making a complaint. The protection of dignity for all employees
is a fundamental human right. It is important that such leaflets are ‘user
friendly’ and bring policy to life, this will be far more effective than a
boring policy statement that no one will read.
See Appendix 6
6.15 Managers
must also understand the importance of social politicking and networking,
Stacey (1993), and using the informal networks in the same way that
protagonists inevitably will. The first
mover advantage in communicating the philosophy is an important one if the
effectiveness of ‘opponents’ is to be neutralised. Protagonists may also be a target for initial training and
involvement, they can then become agents of the new vision. Managers should
realise that it will not be possible to win the hearts and minds of everyone
immediately. Once a new ‘group think’
has been installed as illustrated earlier, even the most vehemently opposed can
be persuaded to conform. The organic or incremental approach is more likely to
reap success than a ‘quick fix’ solution that is then dismissed as the flavour of the month.
6.16 The
‘agents of change’ referred to above should
be used to train and educate EO best practice through interactive
workshops and the cascade process, their commitment will be important to
successful training delivery. Managers and training and instructional staff
should be among the first to receive training and guidance to enable them too
to become champions of good EO practice.
6.17 Gender
relations issues should feature as an integral part of training and development
courses for managers run at the Fire Service College and within the Service
itself. This can also be tested by the
inclusion of the subject in statutory Fire Service promotion examinations,
recruit training and promotion
interview panels. Training in EO to a
competency standard should also be seen as an essential instructor qualification.
6.18 The
Service perpetuates inequality by the choice of language it permits to be used.
6.19 EO
training programmes must take account of re-education needs in respect of
language, terminology and slang which have the effect of insulting or
oppressing some members of the workforce. Such practices have no place in the
workplace of an EO employer. The language to which this refers is where
ridicule, subordination or exclusion of one gender occur. Examples that are already being adopted are:
the use of the term crewing rather than manning, human resources rather than
manpower, firefighter rather than fireman etc.. The important issue is for the
workforce to be educated to develop sensitivity to the interpretations that can
be put on seemingly innocent words.
6.20 The
Fire Service nationally is seen as a
male preserve and the belief is that the job requires attributes not
found in women.
6.21 A
programme should be implemented that creates an image that women are suited to
the job of firefighting and that they are welcome in the Service. A positive
action programme, driven by the Home Office, to promote awareness of a career
for women in the Fire Service should be undertaken which exploits the power and
influence of press and media in terms of imaging and providing
information.
6.22 The
greater use of role models in the form of ‘real’ women firefighters can
reinforce the concept that women can be firefighters, far more quickly. Part of the problem of the ‘patriarchal
prison’ is that the notion of a woman firefighter to many people inside and
outside the organisation is to an
extent intangible, the solution is to show
women in this context and also through
advertising, career conventions school visits etc. show that women in this role
are normal.
6.23 The
recently published study by the Home Office (Bucke 1994) shows that there is a
low level of awareness of firefighting as a career among women largely because
they do not have access to the informal recruiting network available to white
males. The image of firefighters and
their being held in such high esteem is a view that is also held by many
women. Bucke’s report suggests that
this is one of the reasons why they find it difficult to identify themselves
with the job (Appendix 7). Campaigns
should therefore give equal weighting to achievement of both men and women, to
promote awareness and help overcome problems of negative self image.
6.24 Local
positive action programmes that target recruitment of women and provide greater
access to information about a career in the Service and the entry requirements,
should be introduced in conjunction with
schools, job centres, career conventions, press and the media. EO employers must not wait for national campaigns, local initiatives can be
equally effective.
6.25 The
initiative to increase the number of women in the Service does not lie entirely
with the organisation. There is an onus
on women themselves to promote their unique attributes and demonstrate not only
that they are capable of being a firefighter but also to show that they are
enthusiastic too. Successful male
candidates have had to compete for selection using differentiation marketing
type tactics to demonstrate that their
personal qualities are of value to the Service, these points should be promoted
during recruiting campaigns.
6.26 “You
only get one chance to make a first impression”. Fire Service premises often endorse the image of the Service
being a male dominated organisation.
6.27 Careful
consideration needs to be given to elements of male symbolism in key locations
of buildings, imaging of the Service is as important locally as it is through
national campaigns. Entrance foyers,
commonly used buildings, particularly areas that are used for recruiting
purposes, should include elements of imaging that demonstrate that women not
only have a place in the Fire Service but are welcome. The use of photographs of key women staff
and female firefighters in action should be considered. Promotional literature such as Citizens’
Charters, Annual Report, Newsletters and press releases should also include
pictures and stories of women.
CONCLUSION
6.28 The
reasons given by the Working Party report on the Appointment Regulations for
maintaining the existing height/strength criteria are unconvincing and could be
viewed as discriminatory.
RECOMMENDATION
6.29 The
entry criteria should be re-evaluated on an objective basis which examines the tasks
of a firefighter and not just the use of the appliances and equipment that are
currently in use. The Home Office should extend the present remit of the
research of the Rubens Institute or commission new research based on real task
analysis. If the height requirement
cannot be justified it should be removed.
6.30 Existing
appliances and equipment in use in the Fire Service have been designed to meet
the physical capabilities of the dominant gender in the workforce, i.e. male.
6.31 The
Fire Service should amend appliances and equipment specifications to take
account of the changing face of the workforce and collaborate with suppliers to
ensure that ergonomic and manual handling best practice is employed. Due regard should also be given to the needs
and abilities of both genders and take account of recommendations set out in
the Manual Handling Regulations 1992 (Appendix
8).
6.32 Fire
Brigades have not resolved the special tailoring needs of uniform and standards
of dress for female firefighters despite the fact that women have been in the
Service for over 10 years.
6.33 Fire
Brigades and manufacturers of uniform need to take account of the changes in
the workforce and the consequences of the anatomical differences of uniform
design. Fire Brigades should extend
their bulk purchasing arrangements to take account of the changing face of the
workforce. Where this is uneconomic,
made to measure uniforms should be purchased.
Managers and stores personnel must recognise that it does little to
enhance the professional image of the Service when ill-fitting uniform which
was designed for men is issued to a woman.
6.34 Fire
Brigades should also ensure that a consistent, safe and sensible policy is in
place in respect of hair styles that also takes account of the different social
practices of men and women and adopt
policy such as that detailed at
Appendix 9.
6.35 Candidates
for recruitment experience self doubt whilst undertaking recruitment
tests. Women in particular develop
negative self images.
6.36 Greater
understanding of the feelings of candidates is required by Officers conducting
the tests. Support and encouragement is
necessary throughout the recruitment process.
The EOC has commented that recruitment into the Fire Service is not
recruitment at all, it is de-selection. The absence of empathic support for a woman
applicant through this process provides an additional barrier. The Service
should consider this issue, not just in equality terms but also to ensure that
satisfying an objective person specification is the real criteria for entry and
not the ability to survive batch processing. The Service should also make wider
use of female staff in the recruitment process.
6.37 During recruitment, training and later, in service,
women can feel isolated and lacking in empathic support because of the few
numbers in the Service.
6.38 The
Service should actively encourage membership of the Women’s Network and
facilitate access and leave to attend meetings. Promotional literature should
be a feature of all information packs sent to women recruits and information
about new recruits should be passed to key members of the women’s network.
Local support can also be provided by personnel officers and Occupational
Health staff.
6.39 The
first women recruited into the Service may be seen as a novelty by managers and
workforce alike.
6.40 EO
practices need to be sustained and re-emphasised, not just at the recruitment
process but also after joining a station. Managers should be sensitive to
‘first woman’ syndrome. Much attention will
be given to the first and perhaps the next few women employed in the Service,
particularly when they complete their training. If diligence lapses jealousy or
resentment on the part of the first women through can occur. They may see that women entering later either do not
have to fight as hard for their rights as they did or that the work that was
done earlier has fallen by the wayside. It may also allow bad practices to
creep back into the organisation.
6.41 Domestic
problems outside of the Service can be caused by the mixing of gender in the
close knit environment of a watch. The Service and its managers need to be
sensitive to the personal domestic issues of firefighters of both genders who
serve on a mixed watch and whose partners outside of the organisation have concern about shared facilities e.g.
such as dormitories.
6.42 Confidential
counselling interviews may be necessary particularly where odd or unusual
behaviour occurs. Watch officers will need to be especially vigilant in
stamping out jokes that are suggestive or contain innuendo, particularly when
in the company of partners. Relationships are formed in the workplace and
managers need to be aware of the opportunities that may be presented,
particularly with regard to the effects on operational efficiency.
6.43 Monitoring
the effectiveness of policy and
strategy is essential to the success of the equal opportunities programme.
6.44 A
monitoring and feedback system to measure the effectiveness of policies should
be implemented. The number of complaints of sexual harassment is unlikely to
provide adequate information about what is going on in the organisation. Managers should be aware that when asking
firefighters if there are ‘any problems’ this will rarely stimulate an honest
response from either sex particularly where issues such as EO are concerned.
6.45 The
number of women as a percentage of the workforce is a key indicator of the
success of such a programme, but again this is only part of the story. An important issue is to test the attitude
and culture of the workforce. An
equality audit using questionnaires and
personal interviews is more likely to determine whether or not attitudes are
changing. An example of an audit report is shown at Appendix 10. The results
of the monitoring process should then give rise to amendments to the strategy
and a new campaign to tackle the findings that come out of the audit. It will also be necessary to re-emphasise
and re-state corporate principles regularly, particularly when they have been
modified and also communicate the results of the campaigns, an example of the
type of style is shown at Appendix 11.
Such a continuous process again emphasises the point about keeping EO
best practice alive and active within the organisation.
6.46 The above conclusions are
far from exhaustive and the analysis itself is incomplete. It is suggested that further research needs
to be done in the area of the physical requirements and task analysis of the
job of a firefighter. Further work is
also required in looking at the behaviour of men and women working side by side
and whether the natural tendency of man to protect woman creates difficulties. It is also suggested that a marketing type
strategy be applied to the creation of
a more positive EO image for the Service.
On August 30 1994, two women joined Hertfordshire Fire and
Rescue Service as full time firefighters.
At the time this report was submitted they had successfully completed the
first 4 weeks of the basic training
course.
This study was undertaken to establish why, despite
considerable legal pressures, Hertfordshire Fire and Rescue Service has yet to
recruit and successfully train its first woman firefighter.
The report concludes that as well as the legal obligations
there is also a sound business case for employing women in the role of
firefighter and that by not doing so fire brigades are being denied the unique
skills and attributes of approximately one half of the labour market.
The report suggests that many of the barriers to entry, both
real and perceived, are largely artificial.
The entry criteria, particularly the height/strength requirements, are
based on the use of appliances and equipment designed for the existing
workforce, i.e. men. The reluctance of
the Fire Service to address this issue due to the sunken costs already invested
means that women have to compete in the workplace on men’s terms, this could be
held as discriminatory.
Other barriers exist in the beliefs of men and managers
about the performance and ability of women.
The reports shows that these beliefs are again based on comparison with
the performance of men and that attitudes about such issues as menstruation and
decision making of women under pressure are shown to be unfounded.
The report identifies a significant and complex attitude of
self-differentiation among male workers in an all male environment. It concludes that failure to recognise the
cultural issues within the existing workforce may be largely responsible for
the low level of success of the recruitment and retention of women in the role
of firefighter.
The research also shows that the experiences of those women
that have successfully taken up the role of firefighter has been careers
littered with discrimination and inequality.
It shows that personnel throughout all ranks within the Fire Service
have treated women unfairly, sometimes out of malice, sometimes out of naiveté,
sometimes out of stupidity or clumsiness.
The report then takes analysis of the research to make
conclusions and recommendations for the promotion of equality within the
workplace and by implication a strategy for change. Such recommendations include undertaking a culture change
programme, addressing discriminatory behaviour and practice in the written and
spoken word, dealing with issues such as bullying and harassment, developing a
corporate commitment to equal opportunities whilst maintaining the value of the
existing workforce.
Further recommendations are made for a national campaign to
promote an equality image for the Fire Service, collaboration with
manufacturers to ensure that new equipment and uniforms are designed for the
changing face of the workforce, rules and procedures within Fire Services to
take account of the equality issue.
Also for the entry regulations to be re-examined, particularly in
relation to height and strength and finally that the profile of equal
opportunities and its relationship to managerial responsibility is raised
through training and inclusion in the syllabus of statutory examinations.
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Bibliography and appendices to follow