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Howell, M.A. (1994) Women firefighters ‘the inequality
gap’ Unpublished dissertation
for MBA University of Herts. CONTENTS
ChaptersIntroduction The Case for Women Firefighters Perceptions About Women The Culture of the Workforce The Experience of Existing Firefighters Conclusions and Recommendations |
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Appendices -
HFRS Operational Personnel By Gender The Fire Service Appointment and Promotion Regulations
1988 Relative Heights of Men and Women Corporate Statement - Rank Xerox Newspaper Article - Sexual Harassment Case Example Leaflets - Harassment and Bullying Perceptions of the Qualities of a Firefighter Extract from Manual Handling Regulations Example of Policy Statement on Hair LFCDA Equality Audit Document Company Information ‘Flier’ - Rank Xerox Questionnaires Terms of Reference Methodology Project Statement References Glossary |
Howell, M.A. (1994) Women
firefighters ‘the inequality gap’ Unpublished
dissertation for MBA University of Herts.
1.1 It has now been over two decades since
equality legislation was introduced in this country. Despite this in July 1994
Hertfordshire Fire and Rescue Service (HFRS) had yet to recruit and train any
women as full time firefighters. Most of the women employed in the organisation
occupy what may be regarded as traditional supporting roles (Appendix 1),
although in recent years women have managed to penetrate the ‘glass ceiling’
and move into executive posts. In recent years there has been considerable pressure for change and yet the
position , in practical terms, has not changed at all in Hertfordshire. It is only slightly better in other Fire
Brigades, only 2 of the 62 in England, Scotland and Wales employ more than 5
and only half of the Brigades employ any women at all.
1.2 The Service as a whole can claim only a low
level of success in recruitment of women as firefighters, in 1993 only 116
women firefighters were employed in the UK out of a workforce of over 39,400, this represents < 0.3%. Experience
shows that retention has also posed problems for Fire Service managers. The
pressures for a change in this situation come primarily from the expectations
of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) supported by the law itself.
1.3 Three Acts
of Parliament have been
introduced with the specific intention of dealing with equal opportunities (EO)
in the workplace particularly discrimination on the grounds of sex. Each of these laws has a direct effect on
decisions and employment practice in relation to EO for men and women. They are:
The Equal Pay Act 1970
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975
The Sex Discrimination Act 1986
1.4 Compliance with the 1970 Act in respect of
equal pay for the job of a firefighter has already been resolved. The 1975 and
1986 Acts made sex discrimination unlawful in the following areas:
employment and
training,
education,
the provision of
goods, facilities and services to members of the public.
1.5 Discrimination is defined under two categories:
direct and indirect. Direct
discrimination occurs when somebody is treated less favourably on the grounds
of their sex than a person of the other sex is, or would, be treated in similar
circumstances (Section 1(1)(a)).
1.6 Indirect discrimination occurs when a
requirement or condition which cannot be justified on grounds other than sex is
applied to men and women equally that has the effect, in practice, of disadvantaging
a higher proportion of one sex than the other (Section 1(1)(b)). An example is where irrelevant technical
qualifications are asked for and where fewer women hold the qualification.
Areas in which discrimination could take place is in the:
arrangements made for deciding who
is offered a job,
advertising or interviews etc.,
the terms
or conditions in which the job is offered,
the
provision of opportunities for promotion/transfer/training,
the benefit facilities or services an
employer grants to employees,
in
dismissals, rather unfavourable treatment of employees.
1.7 Following recruitment the employer is also
responsible for dealing with harassment at work. Although harassment covers a
wide range of issues it is generally, for the purposes of definition, been
concentrated on sexual harassment. This
has been defined as “unwanted conduct of a sexual nature, or other conduct
based on sex, affecting the dignity of women and men at work”. This includes unwelcome physical, verbal or
non-verbal conduct. By failing to
protect the dignity of women (and indeed men) by combating sexual harassment employers leave themselves open to a number
of legal consequences.
1.8 Generally speaking in most areas of law the
employer is responsible for the acts of their employee, not to deal with
harassment issues could result in the victim leaving the employment and
claiming unfair constructive dismissal.
There may also be additional claims of criminal assault or negligence or
breach of contract. With no upper limit
on awards for compensation in cases of sex discrimination the economic
consequences for Fire Services of ignoring their statutory obligations could be
drastic.
1.9 The legal requirements apply to the Fire
Service in the same way as any other employer.
The Service, therefore, must not provide barriers to women to enter the
Service and once recruited, women should expect to be treated fairly and
equally and the employer has the responsibility to ensure that this is in fact
the case.
1.10 The only ‘legitimate’ barrier for any
employer to operate is one that is a clearly justified requirement of the post
i.e. a ‘Genuine Occupational Qualification’.
In the case of the Fire Service this refers to the entry regulations
which include minimum physical standards.
If the entry regulations can be held as irrelevant to the actual job
they may be seen as artificial and said to be indirect, or even, direct
discrimination.
1.11 Artificial barriers also exist in the
form of the image of the Service and the perceptions of the qualities needed to
be a firefighter and whether the image makes the job unattractive or
inaccessible to women. If the organisation is capable of influencing this issue
and does not, it may leave itself open to a charge of discrimination. As referred to earlier, an objective
perspective on these issues can be gained by considering the view of the EOC on
women and the Fire Service.
1.12 The increase in pressure for change in the
Service is best illustrated by comments made at a conference staged by the
Association and Metropolitan Authorities in March 1994. Jane Monkhouse warned that “the Commission
is getting fed up with waiting for persuasion to work”. She went on “the Commission does not care
what you think, the Commission cares about how you behave and what you actually
do”. In referring to the continuing low numbers of women firefighters 18 years
after the introduction of the Sex Discrimination Act she stated that the
Commission was “tired of listening to the excuses”. She also went on to say that the Fire Service is not embracing
domestic legislation let alone European.
1.13 Ms Monkhouse commented that to ensure
that the Service operates lawfully, acceptance of the issues of EO needs to be
taken on at the highest level followed by a firm commitment to change..... a change of culture if necessary! She also referred to the barriers to women
being caused by the existing entry regulations and in particular the relevance
of height and by implication its relationship to strength.
1.14 The entry criteria is set out in the Fire
Services (Appointments and Promotions) Regulations 1988 (Appendix 2) which
amended the 1978 Regulations of the same name in a number of ways. Specifically entry tests were redesigned to
make them more objective and scientific and perhaps less discriminatory against
women applicants. For example, the
earlier 36 inch chest requirement and a 2 inch expansion were replaced by a
measurement of lung function based on the use of a spirometer or peak flow
meter to measure forced expiratory volume and forced vital capacity (FEV and
FVC).
1.15 The old requirement for strength to be
measured by a test of the ability to carry a person approximately 10 stone in
weight over a distance of approximately 100 yards in less than 60 seconds was
also replaced by tests of isometric muscle strength by hand grip and leg back
pull tests. The values specified however, are based on a task analysis of,
among other criteria, existing practices using equipment etc. designed for
the existing workforce, i.e. men.
1.16 One
requirement which was not amended was the minimum height requirement of
1.68 metres (5’6”) although the study that gave rise to the amendments did
introduce an upper height limit of 1.93 metres (6’4”). ‘The report of the Joint
Working Party on Appointment Provisions’ (1988) makes a number of important points
about the height requirements and in particular the relationship with
strength. It says “some research suggests a physiological
relationship between height and strength and that a smaller person might be
unable to match the physical demands of the Fire Service”. The report dismisses this however as a weak
argument on the basis that “individuals
strength can be assessed by specific strength tests and these themselves are
likely to result in the rejection of smaller candidates”.
1.17 The report also states that the height
range that was introduced in the 1988 regulations is necessary because of the
team environment in which the Service operates and wide ranging differences in
height could mean that uneven weight distribution when carrying equipment provides
a difficult or even dangerous situation.
The report also quotes the Health and Safety Executive Manual Handling
Regulations which states, “when a load
is to be handled by two or more persons ideally the members of the teams should
be of similar height and physique”.
1.18 The Working Party report also says that
height is an important issue with regard to existing fire appliance design (and
therefore the sunken costs) and the use of the equipment it carries. Specific reference is made to the stowage of
ladders and the problems of lowering gantries and causing an impact hazard to
firefighters.
1.19 The report claims that “these arguments, combined with the expense
involved in any major re-design of appliances, provides strong grounds for
keeping the 1.68 metres (5’6”) minimum height limit.” It goes on to say “it appears that any alteration to accommodate
smaller firefighters could be achieved only with possible detriment to the
effectiveness of the appliances for firefighting requirements since although
vehicles with smaller capacity could be used on occasions, their use is clearly
limited”. In its recommendations the
report describes the above as “conclusive practical arguments” for retaining
the minimum height limit for entry.
1.20 At the time of writing new research into
the relationship of height and strength commissioned by the Home Office ‘Joint
Committee of the Central Fire Brigades Advisory Council’, is being
undertaken. The research is being carried
out by the Robins Institute at the University of Surrey and has yet to report
its findings. It is understood,
however, that the research is based on
task analysis and measurement of the
task dimensions, forces and loads applied in a number of specific activities
already in common practice.
1.21 Preliminary analysis shows that people
under the height of 5’6” and indeed women, are able to carry out a number of
the functions and tasks of fire fighting.
There may be a greater percentage of shorter people who are unable to
carry out the more demanding tasks but more precise information on this will
not be available until the report is completed. A concern however, is that the analysis that has been carried out
is based on a study of existing work practices and ergonomic issues already in
use. It seems unlikely that the
research will consider task analysis
based on what might be possible with re-designed appliances and equipment.
1.22 To be objective the tasks themselves and
standard operating practices and procedures also need to be questioned and
analysed and must give proper regard to the recommendations of the Manual
Handling of Loads Regulations. Once
this is completed it will mean that the entry criteria that follows is based on
the task of firefighting and not solely on the design and use of current
equipment and appliances.
1.23 The relative heights of women and
men by age (Appendix 3) shows that the minimum height requirement of
1.68 metres (5’6”) excludes 91% of women from applying to be a firefighter but
only 24% of men. If the height
requirement was reduced to 5’4” (for example) this would still exclude 71% of
women but only 8% of men. For the
employer to demonstrate that a height requirement is not unlawful
discrimination they would be required to demonstrate that the requirement is
justifiable and that the criteria is based on a real need and could be proven to be operationally
necessary for the job in question. The
Commission point out that justification could not be provided by other means
“e.g. the purchase or modification of equipment”. Furthermore, it would need to be demonstrated that individuals
below or above (in the case of the Fire Service) the height range could not
perform the relevant tasks satisfactorily.
It would appear that even when the work of the Robins Institute has been
completed these final points will
not have been answered.
1.24 The implications are clear, the Fire
Service is an organisation lacking real commitment to the issues of recruitment
and retention of women firefighters. The problems which need to be overcome,
however, may have more deeply rooted attitudes or perceptions about the job of
a firefighter and the ‘role’ of women.
A greater understanding of such issues is vital to gaining commitment to
change. Some of these issues are dealt with in the following chapters.
2.1 Economic and employment trends in the 80’s
and 90’s together with woman’s greater desire for financial independence have
increased the number of women in full and part time employment. Social
perceptions about equality in the workplace mean that many large organisations
such as Rank Xerox and Barclays Bank now see this issue as a key component of
the ‘package’ that leads to competitive
advantage (Appendix 4). The effect
is that those organisations like the Fire Service that do not have sound and
active equality policy and practice may be regarded as hidebound and out dated
and must therefore be devoid of modern management practices. The expectation therefore, may be that the
Company will deliver low quality goods
or services. The image that the Fire
Service has in respect of EO, is one
that it deserves, unlikely to be what it wants, certainly not what it needs.
2.2 The legal pressures for the recruitment of
women into the Fire Service have to a large extent, up until now, failed to
bring about a significant change. If
the Service is to address this, as well as giving attention to the image issue,
managers of the Fire Service will also need to consider what advantages, if
any, would be provided by employing women in the Fire Service and whether or
not women have technical or physical skills and attributes which would enhance service delivery. Only when this has been resolved will the
Service be able to either show that women in general are not suited to the job
of firefighting, or that they are. This information can then be used to enable
it to move beyond the ‘tokenism’ of employing women to avoid criticism to then
overcome resistance and thus enable a rigorous and positive action planning so
that change can commence.
2.3 The objective therefore is to apply the
marketing test of determining what would be the “tangible benefits” (Kotler - 1991) of employing women as
operational firefighters. In a
sales/purchase scenario there is a purchaser/provider split. In this case the organisation, (the Fire and
Rescue Service) is seen as the buyer
and the legal and social demands
for equality can be seen as the provider.
It can be argued that hitherto the purchaser has failed to identify a
professional need for women in this capacity.
Some Fire Brigades, such as HFRS, are still in the desire phase as a purchaser whilst others have moved into the want
phase and have demonstrated fairness and equality by employing women and
therefore they have satisfied this want.
Few Fire Brigades, if any, have actually reached the stage where they
recognise that there is a clear need
for women in the Service for purposes other than image.
2.4 In advancing this discussion it’s worth
considering remarks made by Joanne Foster, Chair of the EOC, in a BBC
television interview in 1990. When asked the question “Do you want women
to be equivalent or identical to men in the workplace?” she replied
“Equivalent.” She went on to say, “an
important issue is to recognise and make use of the differences between the
genders rather than pretend that as a species there is no difference”. This is a particularly important and relevant
statement. Recognition that women are
different and not identical to men,
acknowledges that women may possess different skills and qualities or at
least differing levels of the same skills.
If this is so, can an organisation possess all the personal and physical
attributes necessary to provide effective delivery of services when it is not
utilising the ‘special’ abilities of approximately half of the labour market?
2.5 In a technical paper to the Journal of
Economic Studies, Zafiris Tzannatos (1988) observed “Women constitute
potentially a large part of the economy’s endowment and much may be gained from
a better and more productive utilisation of Britain’s most unused/misused
resource”. Tzannatos goes on to
say “..... that women’s occupational
attainment may not be solely affected by employment discrimination but may
rather depend on a more complex set of institutional factors”. This further suggests that the law may be
working in part but attitudes are not changing.
2.6 The issue for the managers to address is to
consider whether the qualities that
women posses, unique or otherwise, have a place in the Fire Service. Broverman,
Clarkson, Rosenkrantz and Vogel (1970) describe a mentally healthy woman, compared
to a man, as “more submissive, less aggressive, less competitive, less
independent, less adventurous, more easily influenced, more easily excitable in
minor crises, more easily hurt, more sensitive, more emotional, more conceited
about appearance, less objective and less interest in maths or science”. Although these observations may be
considered subjective and anecdotal it is suggested that these are widely held
views, particularly by men. Added to this is the widespread belief in the Fire
Service that women are not strong enough to be firefighters. Perceptions also
exist that women’s performance during periods could be hazardous and that women
are illogical.
2.7 These perceptions are examined in the next chapter.
However, the relevance of these beliefs is that they can have the effect
of creating “patriarchal beliefs about
women’s natural and biological inferiority” Spencer and Podmore (1987). This can have such a powerful influence as
to create a “patriarchal prison” Morgan (1993). Morgan goes on to say “so long as organisations are dominated by
patriarchal values and structures the roles of women in organisations will
always be played out on ‘male’ terms”.
He also observes that this explains why feminists advocate that the real
challenge facing women is to change organisational values in the most
fundamental sense.
2.8 In strategic terms therefore, the effective
recruitment and retention of women as firefighters will probably
rest on the ability to convince the Organisation and its workforce that
many of the beliefs are unfounded or irrelevant and that service delivery could
be more effective if women’s
skills were employed. Having convinced the organisation then it
becomes a matter of persuading the same people that the economic investment
necessary for change is justified when considered alongside the ‘tangible
benefits’ that will be achieved.
2.9 Although this approach could be considered
unnecessary in the light of the legislative demands on the organisation the fact is legislation in this area hitherto
has failed or at best achieved only moderate success. The process proposed here is based on a need for education. This education and therefore learning is
itself based on recognition of differences between the sexes and exploitation
of the different skills, qualities and attributes that each possesses. The process of education that has existed in
the past has used, as its base, satisfying legislative responsibilities. As a result, little attention has been given
to the needs and feelings of the existing workforce and as such the philosophy
has met large scale resistance. In
change terminology the Service can be said to be still in the ‘denial’ phase
and really needs to be led through ‘compliance’ to ‘commitment’ Kirkbride
(1993).
2.10 There are some examples where Fire Brigades have moved further along the continuum from the resistance phase to compliance where, according to Kelman (1961), this is seen as a means to gain reward or avoid punishment. It can be argued therefore that where compliance has occurred and Brigades have employed women as fir