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Muckett, A. (2000) Mobilising the Community Forging links,
adding value: Bringing volunteers into the Fire Service to make communities
safer, dissertation for BCC, http://www.fitting-in.com/muckett.htm
Senior Divisional Officer
Martin Muckett MBA, MIFireE, MIOSH,
DMS (Dist) Buckinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service
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“Volunteering
is a fundamental building block of civil society. It brings to life the noblest aspirations of humankind – the
pursuit of peace, freedom, opportunity, safety, and justice for all people.
At the dawn
of the new millennium, volunteering is an essential element of all societies. It turns into practical, effective action
the declaration of the United Nations that “We, the People have the power to
change the world.”
- The International Association for
Volunteer Effort January 2001, the International Year of Volunteers.
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About this Research:
This is research has been awarded the Brigade Command
prize for “outstanding international research project” for 2000.
“It is a first rate study which contributes to the body of
knowledge on volunteering and has the potential to make a far-reaching impact
in the way in which volunteers are involved in the Fire Service.”
Justin Davis Smith, Director of the Institute for
Volunteering Research
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ABSTRACT
In June 2000, Government allocated £120m over three years in order to increase
the involvement of volunteers in the UK. The Home Office holds the responsibility
to achieve Government's three-year target to involve one million more people
in their communities, including the public services.
In 2001 a BCC international project was published. The project was awarded the
book prize from the Fire Service College as an outstanding international research.
The report of the research achieved a distinction at Maters degree level from
Coventry University.
Evidence from the research reveals that UK brigades are
assisted, operationally and increasingly, in community fire safety work, by a
wide range of voluntary organisations. There is currently, minimal
involvement of individual volunteers recruited from the public to complement
the work of the paid staff of the service. The 'Friends of the Fire Service'
scheme operated in Merseyside is the best example of an initiative of this
type.
Evidence from the Merseyside experience was then used to
develop a practical guidance document for UK brigades. This guidance
document has been published to assist those brigades that seek to involve
volunteers to complement the work of paid staff. It includes advice on;
identifying the role for volunteers; recruitment and retention, training
supervision and support; and the legal framework for the involvement.
Martin Muckett MSc, MA, MBA, MIOSH, MiFireE.
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Executive summary
This report describes a research project that explored how
the involvement of volunteers in the UK Fire Service may be increased.
Previous research has concluded that volunteers in the
Fire Service increased greatly the efficiency of Fire Services abroad. They
have never been considered as a potential resource for the Fire Services in
the United Kingdom (UK).
The Institute for Volunteer Research indicates that
volunteers could add quantifiable economic value to the Fire Service as they
do in many other public and private sector organisations in the UK.
Government believes that volunteering plays an important
role in society by providing additional resources, binding communities
together and nurturing democratic participation. In June 2000, Government
allocated £120m over three years in order to increase the involvement of
volunteers in the UK. The Home Office holds the responsibility to achieve
Government’s three-year target to involve one million more people in their
communities, including the public services.
Against this background, this research explored how the
involvement of volunteers in the UK Fire Service could be increased. Four
research objectives are considered; the extent to which volunteers are
currently involved in the service; the drivers for and barriers to increasing
the involvement of volunteers; the experience of other organisations in the
UK and Australia; the way forward for the Fire Service.
Evidence from the research reveals that UK brigades are
assisted, operationally and increasingly, in community fire safety work, by a
wide range of voluntary organisations. The research also indicates that
although UK brigades support paid staff to volunteer both in the workplace
and the wider community, there is at present, minimal involvement of
individual volunteers recruited from the public to complement the work of the
paid staff of the service.
Experience from innovative UK brigades, the voluntary
sector and the emergency services of Western Australia, demonstrate that the
barriers to increasing the involvement of volunteers, recruited from the
public to assist professional paid staff, can be overcome.
Finally,
this report further recommends that:
·
Home Office
develop a strategy that supports brigades who wish to involve more volunteers
from the public [This has been done and
includes the recommendation that UK brigades apply the practical guidance
document to increase volunteers from the public].
·
The service
more accurately records the involvement of all volunteers.
·
Home Office
review progress against government targets for increased volunteers in the
public services.
·
The National
Joint Council for Fire Brigades should change the term ‘Volunteer
firefighter’ to more accurately reflect their status.
Future
research is conducted into potential Fire Service support for mentoring
schemes for the young.
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Acknowledgements
The research project described in this report was completed over a
six month period and during that time I have been given assistance by many
people and organisations. Without exception, those who gave of their time,
knowledge, effort and enthusiasm did so with professionalism and good humour.
Among the first to offer support were staff and colleagues from Her
Majesty’s Fire Service Inspectorate and Buckinghamshire Fire and Rescue
Service, who managed my absence from work and provided facilities to study.
Academic guidance was given by Professor David James, Dr Terry
Shevels and Mr David Thomas from the Fire Service college, whilst Dr
Davis-Smith, the Director of the Institute for Volunteering Research exerted
academic and technical rigor to the work.
Easing my access to the mass of supporting literature and Information
Technology for the project were staff
from The British Library, the National Centre for Volunteering and Dr Martin
Thomas and the staff of the Fire Experimental Unit. I am grateful for the
persistent and consistent assistance provided by Jan Loxley and the staff of
the libraries at the Fire Service College,
The research took me to numerous organisations, in the UK:
Merseyside Fire Service, Strathclyde Fire Brigade, Highlands and
Islands Fire Brigade, West Midlands Fire Service and the Milton Keynes Safety
Centre
In the Home Office:
The Active Community Unit, The National Community Safety Centre, Her
Majesty’s Fire Service Inspectorate, Fire Policy Unit, Research and
Development Section
In the wider community:
South Chiltern Volunteer bureau, Pontefract General Hospital, Camden
Community project, The Red Cross, and Thames Valley Police.
In Australia:
The Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia, The
Bush Fire Brigades in Western Australia and Victoria, Freemantle Volunteer
Sea Rescue Group
Melbourne Metropolitan Fire Brigade and the Country Fire Service of
Victoria.
Finally, I would like to extend my personal gratitude to Tony McGuirk
for suggesting the area of research. Also to Laurie Lavelle, Bob Mithchell
and Jo Harrison-Ward, for facilitating and hosting my trip to the Australian
emergency services and to Mike Read from the Fire Policy Unit, for his
support for the volunteer guidance document. Throughout the project I
benefited from the advice, guidance and professional encouragement offered by
BCC tutors, David Thomas and David Harper, and from my mentor, Damian Smith,
who allowed me to learn from his experiences.
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Table
of Contents
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Executive
summary
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Abbreviations
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List
of Tables
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List
of figures
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1
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Introduction
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1.1
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Background to the investigation
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1.2
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A brief history of volunteers in the Fire
Service
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1.3
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The
aim and objectives of the research
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2
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Research
methodology
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2.1
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Research
strategy
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2.2
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Survey
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2.3
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Semi- Structured Interviews
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2.4
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Case
studies
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2.4.1
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Observations
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2.4.2
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Questionnaire
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2.4.3
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Focus
Groups
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2.5
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Evaluation
workshop
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2.6
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Validation
of research methodology
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2.7
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A
Critique of the research methodology
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3
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Literature
review
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3.1
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Methodology
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3.2
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Critical
review
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4
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Investigation
results
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4.1
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Survey
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4.2
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Semi-
Structured Interviews
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4.3
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Case
studies
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4.4
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Focus
Groups
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4.5
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Questionnaires
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5
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Interpretation
of results
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5.1
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The
current involvement of volunteers in UK Fire Services
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5.2
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Drivers
and Barriers
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5.3
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Overcoming
the barriers
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5.4
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Key
issues for practical guidance
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6
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Published
Guidance for the Fire Service
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6.1
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Draft
guidance
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6.2
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Evaluation
workshop
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6.3
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Arrangements
for dissemination
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7
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Conclusions
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7.1
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The
current involvement of volunteers in UK Fire Services
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7.2
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Drivers
and Barriers
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7.3
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What
and how it is done
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7.4
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Key
issues for practical guidance
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8
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Recommendations
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8.1
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Home
office strategy to support brigades involve more volunteers
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8.2
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Fire
brigades use the practical guidance to increase volunteers
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8.3
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Quantifying
volunteers in the fire service
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8.4
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Reviewing
progress
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8.5
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The
definition of the term ‘volunteer’
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8.6
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Future
research
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References
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Bibliography
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Appendices
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1
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Research
strategy – conceptual model
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2
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General
letter from Home Office to brigades
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3
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Letter
from Home Office containing questionnaire
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4
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Letter
to Scottish brigades
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5
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Letter
to Australian Council for Fire Authorities
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6
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Template
of semi-structured interviews
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7
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Transcripts
of semi-structured interviews
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8
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Questionnaire
to volunteers
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9
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Summary
comparative tables of questionnaire to volunteers
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10
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Focus
group outcomes
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11
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The
Universal declaration on volunteering
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12
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Draft
Home Office strategy on Fire Service volunteering
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13
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Mobilising
your community – a practical guide to bringing volunteers into the Fire
Service to make communities safety.
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List of Abbreviations
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ACU
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Active Community Unit, Home Office
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BCC
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Brigade Command Course
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BITC
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Business In The Community
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CACFOA
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Chief and Assistant Chief Fire Officers
Association
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CFA
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Country Fire Authority, (Victoria State,
Australia)
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CIPFA
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Chartered Institute of Public Finance
accountants
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CPA
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Child Protection Act
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FBU
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Fire Brigades Union
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FESA
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Fire and Emergency Services Authority (of
Western Australia)
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FPU
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Fire Policy Unit, Home Office
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FSYTA
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Fire Service Youth Training Association
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HMI
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Her Majesty’s Fire Service Inspectorate
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HSE
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Health and Safety Executive
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IAVE
|
International Association for Volunteering
Effort
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IVR
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The Institute for Volunteering Research
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NCFSC
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National Community Fire Safety Centre
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NCV
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National Centre for Volunteering
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NJC
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Nation Joint Council for Fire Brigades
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RNIB
|
Royal National Institute for the Blind
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RNID
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Royal National Institute for the Deaf
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RNLI
|
Royal National Lifeboat Institute
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UK
|
United Kingdom
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WI
|
Women’s Institute
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WRVS
|
Women’s Royal Voluntary Service
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In 1996 Assistant Firemaster Robert Coke conducted a BCC international
research project entitled “The Use of Volunteer Firefighters in Metropolitan
Areas”. His literature search revealed that there was “very little evidence”
(Coke 1996:26) to suggest that volunteers had ever been considered as a direct
Fire Service resource in the UK.
This is not the case elsewhere in the world. Coke’s research cites
examples from overseas where volunteers are successfully engaged in operational
duties; e.g. search and rescue from civil disasters.
The conclusions of Coke’s research were that:
The use of
Volunteers would “increase greatly” the efficiency and effectiveness of a Fire
Service.
For Fire
Services to use volunteers, there must be a “volunteering culture” in the
nation that is reflected in the organisational culture.
The United Kingdom has a “volunteering culture” but it has not been
transferred to assist in the provision of Fire Services.
The “non transference” is attributed to three factors:
·
Volunteers
have never been considered in the major reviews of the service
·
The
organisational structures of brigades and current risk categorisation preclude
the use of volunteers
·
Fire Service
tradition creates a “barrier culture” to change
An initial review of literature confirmed that the situation is very
much the same as in 1996. There remains little evidence to suggest that the use
of volunteers in the Fire Service is on the national agenda. However, there is
anecdotal evidence that some UK brigades are beginning to use volunteers for
operational and Community fire safety work.
In the Summer of 2000, the Government’s Spending Review (SR) cited
empirical evidence from research conducted by the Institute for Volunteering
Research (IVR) that volunteers provided quantifiable 'added value' to the
public services by:
·
reducing crime levels
·
improving health services to the public
·
improving literacy and numeracy rates
Based on the estimates from the Institute for Volunteering Research, it
is calculated that “for the £400 million spent on volunteering there is a
notional economic return of £12 billion. So for every £1 spent by the public
sector on volunteering there is an economic payback of £30. This figure
highlights the enormous economic significance of volunteering.” (Home Office,
2000)
The spending review outlined the role that volunteering is seen to play
in society by 'providing additional services, binding communities together, and
nurturing democratic participation'. In order to increase the benefits from
volunteering, the Home Office has been given the specific target to: “Make substantial progress by 2004 towards
one million more people being actively involved in their communities” (Home
Office 2000).
To attempt to achieve that target the Government allocated an additional
£120 million over a three year period, to encourage initiatives that include:
·
Developing the national volunteering infrastructure with new
arrangements for training and accrediting
·
Better marketing of volunteering opportunities
·
Better advice for potential volunteers
·
Deploying more volunteers in the public sector
Given Government’s intention to fund the involvement of more volunteers
in the public sector together with empirical evidence that volunteers can play an important role in society,
do add value to public services and would “increase greatly” the efficiency and
effectiveness of the Fire Service, the question that this research seeks to
explore is:
“How can United Kingdom fire authorities increase the involvement of
volunteers?”
1.2 A brief history of volunteers in the Fire
Service
Fire Service volunteering began in the United Kingdom in 1937 (O’Brien
1955) when the Auxiliary Fire Service was formed as a contingency for the
second world war. By 1939, when the auxiliary service was mobilised, it was
said to have almost 120,000 volunteer members.
The Auxiliary Fire Service was eventually disestablished in 1967 when
its strength was still estimated to be over 13,500 (Coke 1996:27)
Since that time there has been a raft of literature dealing with the
Fire Service engaging with voluntary organisations, particularly involving
major incidents and, increasingly, community fire safety and crime and disorder
initiatives (Home Office 1998) (LFEPA 1999).
In contrast, there has been very little work published in the UK in the
area of volunteers being involved as a direct “in-house” resource (Coke 1996).
In 1998, the Institute for Volunteering Research (IVR) described two
ways in which the Government supports volunteers who are involved in public
sector work. Firstly, through the funding of voluntary organisations and,
secondly, through local authorities and NHS Trusts which involve volunteers
“directly in their own in-house activities” (IVR, 2000)
1.3 The Aim and Objectives of the research
The Aim of the research was:
To determine how Fire Services
in the United Kingdom can increase the involvement of volunteers.
In order to
explore the research question, the following research objectives were
developed:
1. To determine
the current extent of volunteering in UK brigades.
2. To identify
the current drivers for and barriers to involving volunteers in UK brigades.
3. To examine how
the barriers to involving volunteers may be overcome.
4. To develop
practical recommendations for the UK Fire Service using 1 to 3 above.
2 Research methodology
2.1 Research strategy
Manstead and Semin (1998) point out the need to adopt a strategy which
suits the type of research question.
In the light of empirical evidence (IVR 2000 and Coke 1996) that
volunteers can add value to society and public service brigades, and that the
government has additional expenditure over three years to involve more
volunteers in community activities,
including the public sector (Home Office 2000), the research
question was framed specifically “To determine how Fire Services in the
United Kingdom increase the involvement of volunteers?”
To make best use of limited resources, outlined by Hakim (1982) and
address the question within Government’s time-frame for additional expenditure,
an interpretative method of research was chosen. Each stage of data collection
was followed by some initial analysis, the results of which were then used to
inform subsequent data collection (Robson 1997 p18).
Due to the complexity of the data sources available, a hybrid
interpretative research strategy was developed . This approach also enabled the
author to learn from the application of a wide range of research methodologies.
To maintain the focus and direction of the study, the research question
was explored by setting four research objectives:
1. To determine
the current numbers of volunteers and the extent of volunteering in UK
brigades.
2. To identify
the current drivers for and barriers to involving volunteers in UK brigades.
3. To examine how
the barriers may be overcome.
4. To develop
practical recommendations for the UK Fire Service using 1 to 3 above.
The first application of the research objectives was to provide the
focus for the literature search (primary data, e.g. BCC reports; secondary
data, e.g. journal articles; and tertiary data, e.g. social science text books)
gathered from a wide range of sources.
The research strategy,
incorporating the four research objectives, employs multiple methods of data
collection based on the complementary purposes model suggested by Robson
(1997:290), in which a variety of qualitative and quantitative tools are used
to analyse data from diverse sources to achieve multiple triangulation (Arksey
and Knight 1999:22). This approach was selected because it is widely accepted
(Robson 1997; Arskey and Knight 1999; Saunders et al 2000) that the use of the
data from triangulated, complementary sources “enhances interpretability and
assesses the plausibility of threats to validity” (Robson 1997 :291). A
conceptual model illustrating how the objectives were achieved is shown in
Appendix 1.
The model demonstrates which analytical tools were applied to the
complementary data in order to help ensure valid and reliable findings The
final stage was an element of action-based research by adopting a “Responsive
Evaluation” (Robson 1997:177).
Responsive Evaluation is considered to be a significant feature of the
research strategy. Its inclusion is an attempt to ensure the conclusions and
recommendations from the research have both credibility and impact in the real
world.
The research process was designed to be iterative; as such it reflects
the interpretative philosophy in that data collection and evaluation are not
rigidly separated. It is a framework that provided a focus for the research,
which drew on data from five discrete research activities:
·
Survey
·
Semi-structured interviews
·
Case studies
·
Focus Groups
·
Questionnaires
The following sections outline the research methods used for each of
these activities.
2.2 Survey
A survey of all UK brigades was conducted in order to achieve the first
objective of the study; To determine the current numbers of volunteers and the
extent of volunteering in UK brigades.
The survey was based on a questionnaire. The design of the questionnaire
was informed by questionnaires that had been used in two recent similar
surveys:
1
A survey questionnaire used by the Institute for Volunteering Research
in 1999, to determine the extent to which UK fire authorities supported
volunteering.
2
A Survey questionnaire used by the Home Office Research, Development and
Statistics Directorate which had been used to determine the extent of
volunteering in the UK Prison service.
In addition to achieving the primary purpose of the survey, the
questionnaire was extended to obtain data to support the other objectives of
the research. The resultant survey questionnaire is shown at Appendix 2, was
designed to gather data relating to:
·
Volunteering amongst Fire Service staff, both work related and in the
wider community
·
Established voluntary organisations that brigades were working with
·
Determining to what extent individual volunteers from the public were
directly involved in the work of the Fire Service
·
The management of volunteers
·
Future plans to involve volunteers
The questionnaire was sent to all brigades in England and Wales by the
Fire Policy Unit of the Home Office and to all Scottish brigades directly by
the author.
2.3 Semi-structured interviews
To obtain data to achieve the second objective of the research, the
author conducted semi-structured interviews with representatives of the key
stakeholders of the Fire Service.
This method of data collection was selected for three reasons:
1 The author considered that
any change in the Fire Service is most likely to be achieved when its key
stakeholder’s needs and expectations have been considered. As others have
observed, “Understanding stakeholders and how they are likely to influence an
organisation… is a very important part of any strategy analysis” (Johnson & Scholes 1993)
2 Semi-structured interviews
allowed a degree of focus to enable data relating to the research objectives to
be gathered, whilst at the same time provided the flexibility for respondents
to offer related views that could develop knowledge of the subject and/or
identify new areas for exploration.
3 To optimise the author’s preferred learning
style, which had been revealed from an analysis of cognitive style suggested by
Allison Hayes (1993). This indicated that face to face discussions were likely
to be an effective method for the author to gather data.
The list of stakeholder groups was identified through the author’s
previous experience of working with the Joint Strategic Committees of the
Central Fire Brigade’s Advisory Council and confirmed in discussions with
course tutors.
The template for the semi-structured interviews was developed initially
to ask questions relating directly to the four research objectives. The
template was piloted with three people, one from the Fire Service, one from a
related organisation, (the Health and Safety Executive), and the author’s
technical assessor. Following the piloting some questions were refined,
supplementary questions were added and standard prompts were also included in
order to increase the standardisation of the data. The resultant interview
template (shown at Appendix 6) facilitated the collection of data related to:
1. The definition
of the term volunteer.
2. The voluntary
activities that Fire Service stakeholders would consider acceptable.
3. Any perceived
drivers for and barriers to volunteers in the Fire Service.
4. Any other
relevant information
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the following
individuals:
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Jeff Breedon
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National Officer of the Fire Services Youth Training Association
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Gareth Broughton
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HM Acting Principal Inspector of Health and Safety in the Fire Unit of
the Health and Safety Executive
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HMI Graham Meldrum
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Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Fire Services (England and Wales)
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Rab Coke
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Assistant Firemaster, Operational Commander Strathclyde Fire Brigade
(author of previous research)
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Mick Donald
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Volunteer Manager, Strathclyde
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Ian Evans
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Head of National Community Fire Safety Centre
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Mike Fordham
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Assistant General Secretary Fire Brigade Union
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Mike Larkin
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Higher Executive Officer working in the Fire Policy in the Community
Fire Safety Team
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Brian Murray
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Firemaster, Highlands and Islands Fire Brigade
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Tony Ritchie
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Chair of the Local Government Association Fire Executive
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Dr Justin Davis Smith
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Director the Institute for Volunteering Research
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The findings from the semi-structured interviews were used to inform the
next elements of the research which were to gather data from the field, by
means of case studies, focus groups and questionnaires to volunteers.
2.4 Case Studies
The purpose of conducting case studies was to collect data to achieve
the third and fourth of the research objectives, ‘to examine how the barriers
to volunteers in the Fire Service may be overcome’ and ‘to inform the
development of practical recommendations for the UK Fire Service’.
In order to achieve an international perspective, case studies were
conducted in the UK and Australia.
The reason for conducting case studies in Australia was that the initial
literature review had identified difficulties in the cultural context of
volunteering. During the semi-structured interviews, stakeholders of the UK
service were dismissive of the notion that the often-quoted German experience
(Coke 1996, Tucker 1994) had any relevance to the UK position. Australia was
selected for three reasons:
1 There was evidence that it was culturally
closer to the UK than geographically closer countries. (Hall 2001, Lavelle,
2000)
2 The large size of the fire authorities in
Australia and the diversity in the density of the population, has resulted in
the emergency services managing large numbers of volunteers who come from a
variety of backgrounds and undertake a wide range of activities.
3 The size of the voluntary (non profit)
sectors as a percentage of the UK are similar to that in Australia and
therefore the experience of the Australian Emergency Service is likely to be
relevant to the socio-economic climate of the UK.
Figure 2.4.a. The
size of the non-profit sector
Source:
John Hopkins nonprofit comparative study
The choice of case study subjects was determined by the data from:
·
The initial literature review
·
The Survey of UK brigades
·
The semi- structured interviews with stakeholders
Table 2.4.a. below, shows the organisations which were finally selected
as case studies, along with the reasons for their selection.
Table 2.4.a:
Case study organisations
Organisation
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Reason for selection
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In the UK:
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Merseyside Fire Brigade
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The brigade is developing the use of volunteers as
‘Friends of the Fire Service’
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Strathclyde Fire Brigade
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Employs large numbers of ‘volunteer’ firefighters
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Highlands and Islands Fire Brigade
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Employs large numbers of auxiliary firefighters
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Pinderfields and Pontefract General Hospital
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Cited by the Government as a ‘shining example’ of how
volunteers are involved in a public sector organisation.
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West Midlands Fire Brigade
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Have had a small volunteer group of retired firefighters
to provide an ‘after the fire’ service for the victims of fire
|
|
Thames Valley Police
|
In 2000 began an initiative to increase the numbers of
civil volunteers operating from Police Stations
|
|
The Safety Centre, Milton Keynes
|
The safety centre provides fire safety education, through
volunteers, to groups of visiting schoolchildren. It was cited as an example
of community safety best practice by
the national community safety centre.
|
|
In Australia:
|
|
|
The Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western
Australia (FESA)
|
Largest single Fire Service organisation in the world
managing in excess of 24,000 volunteers
|
|
Victoria Metropolitan Brigade
|
A large metropolitan area that has very busy volunteer
fire stations.
|
|
The Country Fire Service
|
A large rural Fire Service that has conducted
significant research into the future
of volunteers in the Fire Service.
|
The case study approach enabled an examination of volunteers within
varied cultural and organisational contexts (Morris and Woods 1991). In addition
case studies are considered to be a very worthwhile way to explore and
challenge existing understanding (Saunders et al 1997).
The case study strategy adopted reflected what Robson (1993, p-5)
describes as an empirical investigation of a phenomenon with its real life
context, using multiple sources of evidence.
The first step was to conduct a passive surveillance of documentary
evidence on each case in order to determine the focus for closer examination
and which of the following three independent methods should be used to source
more in-depth data:
1
Observations; comprising face-to-face discussions with volunteer
managers and others, supported by the collection of local documentation.
2
Questionnaires; to various groups of volunteers relating to their
experience as volunteers
3
Focus groups; that allowed in depth discussion with groups of
volunteers, whilst maintaining a sensitive approach to any local issues.
The methods applied in each case study depended upon the
reason for the selection of the case study. For example, the Country Fire
Authority was visited to gain an insight into the research that had been
conducted and to access supporting local documentation. However, in Western
Australia, focus groups were used to gain an in depth understanding from a
variety of long established and evidently well-managed volunteer groups.
2.4.1 Observations
The Observations were conducted against a common template which allowed
the systematic collection of data. The template for the observations had five
elements:
1
Material which provided a background to the organisation
2
Reasons why the organisation had involved volunteers in its activities
3
What ‘duties’ the volunteers were actually doing in the organisation
4
Had the organisation overcome any of the barriers that face volunteers
in the UK Fire Service
5
Any other relevant material
Data from the observations were used in a number of ways. In the most
part, by providing context for the analysis of other data sets and as a source
of documentary evidence to support the achievement of the fourth objective of
the research, which was to develop practical guidance for the UK Fire Service.
2.4.2 Questionnaire
A questionnaire (shown in Appendix 8) was used to elicit the views of
volunteers from the various case study organisations.
The aims of the questionnaire were to twofold; firstly, to collect data
relating to why and how volunteers were recruited for Fire Service type
activities, what their experience of the voluntary work has been and why they
have stayed. The second purpose of the questionnaire was to provide an
indication of the reliability of adopting management methods from non-UK Fire
Service organisations for the UK Fire Service.
In order to achieve both aims, the questionnaire was based on the
questions that had been applied in a major national study of volunteering
conducted by the Institute for Volunteering Research in 1997.
In order to confirm the reliability of the data and to identify
statistical significance, the data from the questionnaires were analysed using
quantitative statistical techniques using the software programme ‘Statistica’.
2.4.3 Focus Groups:
The author considered it important, where possible, to get a clearer
understanding of why and how volunteers involved in the work of the Fire
Service first of all were recruited and retained.
In order to gather data, focus groups were conducted using a white board
or flip chart to record and agree the key issues where time and resources
permitted. The organisations where focus groups were conducted were selected by
purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling allowed the author to “select groups
based on the purpose of the study” (p 204, Krueger and Casey, 2000). The
structure of the focus groups was adapted from that recommended by Krueger and
Casey (2000) as suitable for conducting focus groups in existing organisations.
The questions were developed in consultation with the Director of the Institute
for Volunteering Research and were designed to give an insight into:
·
Why volunteers gave up their time and effort to work as volunteers
·
How they were recruited
·
What made them stay
·
How the experience of being a volunteer differed from their expectation
The data from the focus groups was analysed using the
grounded theory approach as described by Pidgeon and Henwood (1996) which
allows the analysis of qualitative data that is achieved from the type of
data-rich but sometimes unstructured notions that often occur during a dynamic
focus group discussion.
Once the comments from the focussed groups were consolidated,
using grounded theory, the author adapted the long table (Kruger and Casey
2000) approach for further comparative analysis. The long table approach,
described by Kruger and Casey (2000:132), allows the identification of themes,
by cutting and pasting the responses from the focus groups into a consolidated
table. This enabled the author to identify where there were patterns to the
responses and where they were novel responses.
2.5 Evaluation workshop
This was a key stage of the research process. It was included because
the author is particularly keen that stakeholders of the service have an
opportunity to consider the research findings and how they might contribute to
supporting the Home Office target for volunteers.
The purpose of the evaluation workshop was to provide what Robson (1993
p 176) cites as a “Responsive evaluation”. Robson cites Stake (1976) who
provides the following 5 step model to achieve Responsive Evaluation of data.
1. Identification
of the issues from the people involved during the semi-structured interviews
2. Use of
documents to identify further issues
3. Direct
observation of the work
4. Designing the
evaluation based on 1 + 2 +3 above
5. Designing a
participative evaluation based on the information above
3 Literature review
3.1 Methodology
A list of possible search terms was drawn up for the initial literature
review using sources from the Fire Service College Library, Surrey University,
The British Library, The National Centre for Volunteering, the Institute for
Volunteering Research and the internet. A wide variety of CD-ROM based and
on-line computer databases, which might hold relevant literature citations,
were also accessed. On-line versions
of CD-ROM databases were used where available to ensure that searches revealed
as much recent material as possible.
The search terms used were: Volunteers, Voluntary organisations, and
Volunteer Fire Fighters.
Due to the breadth of literature available, titles and abstracts were
scanned first, then where items of possible relevance were identified, the full
text was obtained.
The full text was then scanned to ensure relevance before being read and
abstracts and quotes were selected for inclusion into the review report.
The abstracts and summaries were then ordered to establish the level of
existing knowledge (both general and Fire Service specific) in support of the
four research objectives.
Additional primary and secondary literature was obtained
during the case study stage of the research and used as reference material
where appropriate through the study.
3.2 Critical
review
In order to conduct a rigorous and systematic appraisal of
existing literature on volunteers it was necessary to have a grounded
understanding of the term “volunteer”.
In 1992 a review of the information from a National survey
conducted in the UK voluntary sector concluded that it was not possible to say
“With any degree of certainly, how many people are involved in Voluntary action
in Great Britain at the present time.” (p 73 Hedley and Smith 1992). The
research also found that it was not possible to identify any trends in
volunteering in the UK. The reasons given for this were that although a number
of surveys had been carried out over the previous 15 years, each one had
applied different definitions to the terms ‘volunteer’.
A definition of volunteering that the Institute for
Volunteering Research has adopted since 1981 is:
“any activity which involves spending time, unpaid, doing something
which aims to benefit someone (individuals or groups) other than or in addition
to relatives, or to benefit the environment.” (Davis-Smith 1997:13)
This is a definition that is supported by others involved in the
voluntary sector. A major research project in Australia confirmed that
Volunteers are those who give “unpaid assistance in the form of time, service
and skills to help others” (Reinholtd and Smith 1998:1).
In time, a new aspect to the definition emerged. Volunteering was increasingly
seen as the result of the exercise of free will. In the UK, in 1999, the
Government Unit responsible for implementing governmental policies on
volunteering provided an interpretation of volunteering. “The commitment of time and energy for the benefit
of the wider community, the environment, or individuals outside one’s immediate
family, with this commitment undertaken freely, by choice and without concern
for financial gain”. (Active Community Unit 1999:9)
Despite the 1981 definition that continues to be used for comparative
research (Davis-Smith 1997), more recent definitions indicate that the term
volunteering conveyed three key notions:
1 That
it is done freely and without coercion
2 That
it is done to benefit the wider community
3 That
it is done without payment
The most recent example of this definition is found in a report of the
16th World Volunteer Conference of the International Association for Volunteers
in January 2001. In the report, volunteers were described as those people who
“freely offer their time, talent, and energy to others and to their communities
through individual and collective action, without expectation of financial
reward.” (The International Association for Volunteer Effort 2001)
This definition was adopted in the search of available literature in
order to establish the level of existing knowledge in relation to the
objectives of the project:
1 To determine the current numbers of
volunteers and the extent of volunteering in UK brigades.
2 To identify the current drivers for
and barriers to involving volunteers in UK brigades.
3 To
examine how the barriers may be overcome.
4 To develop practical recommendations for
the UK Fire Service using 1 to 3 above.
The following sections review the available literature for each of the
research objectives.
3.2.1 The current numbers of volunteers and
the extent of volunteering in UK brigades.
The literature review failed to identify any significant
evidence relating to the numbers of volunteers in the UK Fire Service.
In 1996 Assistant Firemaster Robert Coke conducted a BCC
international research project entitled “The Use of Volunteer Firefighters in
Metropolitan Areas”. His literature search revealed that there was “very little
evidence” (Coke 1996 pp-26) to suggest that volunteers had ever been considered
as a direct Fire Service resource in the UK.
A search of the literature available in 2000 found evidence
regarding the extent of volunteering in the UK Fire Service from only two
sources.
1
Chartered Institute for Public Finance Accountants (CIPFA) and
2
A a survey conducted by the Institute for Volunteering
Research in 1998.
According to CIPFA (CIPFA 1999) the numbers of volunteer
fire-fighters in UK Brigades is 1, 303. This figure is based on the returns
from each brigade in the UK. The definition of the term ‘volunteer firefighter’
used by CIPFA is found in the National Joint Council for Fire Brigade’s Conditions of Service book which states:
“When a volunteer firefighter is engaged on authorised duty, he or she shall be
paid at the hourly rate applicable to retained firefighters for pre-arranged
attendances (NJC 2000, Section 7.2 Paragraph 10).
This payment for duty takes volunteer firefighters outside
the nationally and internationally accepted definition of ‘volunteer’. Further doubt is cast on the validity of the
term ‘volunteer firefighters’ by the fact that Highlands and Islands Fire
Brigade, which was reported by CIPFA to
have the greatest number of volunteer firefighters, has changed the
nomenclature to more accurately reflect their status. Highlands and Islands
Fire brigade now refer to ‘volunteer firefighters as “auxiliary personnel”
(Highlands and Islands Fire Brigade 1999:9)
In 1997 the Institute for Volunteering Research conducted a
major survey to establish the numbers and expenditure on volunteers across the
public sector in England. The data received for this survey were generally poor
due to the fact that many public bodies, especially at a local level, were
“unable to provide figures on their support for voluntary activity which
indicates a lack of awareness of, and interest in, volunteering in the public
sector”. (Institute for Volunteering Research 2000).
However, from the 30 responding brigades, the survey was
able to concluded that:
Fire
Authorities in England involve volunteers in catering, maintenance and
firefighting.
Many
authorities supported staff to become involved in their local communities and
almost all of the authorities reported that firefighters did arson awareness
and prevention training on a voluntary basis.
Approximately
50 volunteer firefighters were involved in the training of the young unemployed
The
extrapolated, quantified support for volunteers by fire authorities in England
was £0.4 million
3.2.4
To identify
the current drivers for and barriers to involving volunteers in UK brigades.
3.2.4.1 Drivers
The literature revealed evidence that volunteers add value to
organisations by being energetic and enthusiastic, by broadening the skills,
knowledge and experience base of the organisation and by strengthening the
links with the local community. Some argue that a basic qualification for
vocational careers should be a year’s voluntary work. “This would result in a
highly motivated, enthusiastic workforce”. (Rayner 2000)
A Study in Canada (Tansky and Gallagher 1995) recently concluded that voluntary part-time workers had
significantly positive attitudes towards their employers.
Companies initially take in community schemes to put something back, but
in doing so they gain knowledge and experience. (Corning 1999) She quotes a
report from management consultants McKinsey (unattributed) that agues that ‘
voluntary organisations often display precisely those management skills that
leading companies are struggling to acquire, particularly in managing change'
Contemporary research in the UK Fire Service concludes that the use of
volunteers would “increase greatly” (Coke 1996:119) the efficiency and
effectiveness of a Fire Service.
There is research showing that the benefits that volunteers bring to
organisations can be quantified. For example, in 1997 the Institute for
Volunteering Research calculated that “for the £400 million spent on
volunteering (in the UK) there is a notional economic return of £12 billion.”
(IVR 1997) The Institute estimates that for every £1 spent by the public sector
on volunteering there is an economic payback of £30.
Further work by Mobinul (1999) argues that the economic value of the
work of volunteers should be estimated by considering the cost of maintaining a
workforce to do the work. Mobinul postulates that if the Service paid staff to
carry out the complementary tasks that volunteers are currently doing, they
should count the cost of the provision of service by paid staff.
These studies attempt to
quantify the economic arguments for involving volunteers in organisations. A
more tangible driver for the UK Fire Service was provided in the Government’s
2000 Spending Review.
The Spending Review (Home Office 2000) firstly confirmed the role that
volunteering is seen to play in society by 'providing additional services,
binding communities together, and nurturing democratic participation'. Then, in
order to increase the benefits from volunteering, the review pledged an
additional £120 million over the next three year period, to encourage on
initiatives that include:
·
Developing the national volunteering infrastructure
·
Better marketing of volunteering opportunities
·
Better advice for potential volunteers
·
Deploying more volunteers in the public sector
To ensure progress, the Active Community Unit of the Home Office has
been given the specific target to:
“Make substantial progress by 2004 towards one million more people being
actively involved in their communities” (Home Office 2000).
This support for volunteers looks set to continue. “Labour has always
seen a partnership between the state and the voluntary sector as an essential
building block of a modern welfare state.” Davis-Smith (2000)
There is evidence already that the Fire Service can gain access to this
additional funding. Merseyside Fire Brigade has made a successful match-funding
bid to increase the scope of a pilot volunteer scheme within the brigade.
(McGuirk 2000)
The reviews of literature so far has indicated that volunteers bring
quantifiable benefits to organisations, could greatly increase the
effectiveness of the service and are being encouraged by a three year spending
plan from central government. But are there sufficient people in the UK to be
involved in the Fire Service as volunteers?
In 1997 Hems and Doorn (1998:178) calculated that “some 130,000 active
general charities in the UK benefited from the unpaid work of over three
million volunteers.” This is contrasted by other estimates in the same year of
the size of the voluntary sector in the UK. Palmer and Hoe state that there are
approximately 23 million people involved in voluntary work in the UK each year.
(Palmer and Hoe 1997)
In 2001, a study conducted by the John Hopkins University estimated that
6% of the non-agricultural workforce in the UK is involved the non-profit
sector. (Hopkins 2001)
3.2.4.2 Barriers
In contrast to the substantial body of literature that argues for the
Fire Service to involve volunteers, the case for not involving them attracts
little support in the literature.
There is, however, evidence from the literature that there are two
significant barriers to involving volunteers in the Fire Service; resistance
from paid staff and their representatives and the quality of the management
culture of the service.
Davis-Smith cites evidence to support what he refers to as the ‘uneasy
alliance’ between volunteers and unions in the UK, which had its genesis in the
1920s when volunteers were used as strike breakers. By the 1980s union
suspicion was fuelled by a fear that volunteers in the public sector would
reduce the number of paid posts. Since the 1990s Davis-Smith observes that
there were “signs of lessening tension”. Several large unions now recruit
volunteers into their membership. (Hadley and Davis-Smith 1992:45)
Even with this lessening of tension there is still a view at the turn of
the 21st century that volunteering tends to undermine certain
fundamental principles of industrial law. (Heimgartner 1999)
In 1993, a research study
identified management issues as key to the successful involvement of volunteers
into any organisation. (Institute for Volunteering Research 1993) This is confirmed by a similar study in
Australia that found that the “’ boys club’ culture” and the “quality of
leadership” were both acting as disincentives for people to volunteer for the
Fire Service. (Smith 1998:12)
Although the government view is that the way in which the Fire Service
manages its people is “ Fundamental to all the aspects of (a modern) Fire
Service” (O’Brien 2000). There is evidence that there is room for improvement
in the way the Fire Service manages people. “The internal management of the
(Fire ) service is in sharp contrast to its external image. The reaction and
discipline essential to front line operations , which occupy only a small part
of the service’s time overall, has scant application to the routine day to day
working. Yet it is retained as an element of ‘command’ power across activities
that require leadership and management, rather than automatic obedience to orders.”
(HMI 1998:20)
Research into volunteers in the UK Fire Service reflects the
significance of management and culture as a barrier for Fire Service
volunteers. In 1996 Coke concluded that the barriers for volunteers to be
involved in the work of the Fire Service were threefold (Coke 1996:119):
1
Volunteers have never been considered as a resource for the Fire Service
2
The present methods of risk categorisation and emergency response
options preclude the use of volunteers
3
Fire Service traditions act as cultural barriers to change
1.3.3
To examine how
the barriers may be overcome.
The Active Community Unit (ACU) confirm that organisational culture is a
key issue that enables more people to become actively involved as
volunteers. The ACU argue that there is
a need to create “a culture that supports continued commitment” (Active
Community Unit 1999)
As far back as 1947 Lewin postulated that the status quo in any
organisation would be understood as a situation where the drivers for change
and the forces resisting change reached a state of equilibrium. Lewin (1947)
observed that to achieve change in organisations involved the management of a
three phase process:
1
Unfreezing – reducing those forces resistant to change
2
Movement – the implementation of change
3
Refreezing – reinforcing the change through policies structures and
support systems.
This approach has been adapted by many since 1947, (Hofstede 1980, Miles and Snow 1978, Pfeffer
1981, and Schein 1985). In 1993 Johnson and Scholes used the Lewin model of
cultural change to argue that the key to unfreezing organisations is an
understanding of the needs and expectations of key stakeholders. Johnson and
Scholes (1993:175) add that “Understanding and assessing the importance of
stakeholder expectations is an important part of the initiating (cultural)
change”.
Mullins (1999) builds on Lewin’s
notion of resisting forces and observes that change is often resisted by forces
that operate at both individual and organisational levels and that “management
should adopt a clearly defined strategy for the initiation of change”. (Mullins
1999:831) Others see resistance to change being offered by disillusioned or
uniformed stakeholders. (Johnson and Scholes 1993)
With regard to the movement
phase of change, again Lewin’s work is complemented by subsequent studies.
French, Kast and Rosenzweig (1985) suggest that it can be seen as comprising
eight specific components including the need for planning and assessment of the
outcomes. Others may argue for different components; for example, the Peters
and Waterman (1982) 7-S framework and
Mullins’ seven principles of managing change (Mullins 1999:828) but there
appears to be consensus that there is a movement phase that must be carefully
planned for.
Lewin states that the final phase of effective change is “re-freezing”.
Less has been written about this phase of the change process. Although Murdock
(1998) like Mullins (1999:829), Peters and Waterman (1982:287), and Johnson and
Scholes (1993:413) sees that the sustained implementation of change is
fundamentally reliant upon the effective co-operation of staff, management and
unions. “Change management means more than changing the chart. It involves
people …In good times and bad, the key to success is good communication”
(Murdock 1998:66)
3.2.4
To develop
practical recommendations for the UK Fire Service.
In order to identify sources of material relating to the
drafting of guidance, the author applied two additional search terms; ‘writing’
and ‘guidance’. The results of this
search were somewhat disappointing, the literature is full of advice on how to
write English (Gowers 1986, Palmer, 1993, Taylor, 1992) Typical of the type of
advice offered on writing was that “Good prose should resemble the conversation
of a well bred man” (Taylor 1993:109).
Although there was little in the literature relating to the
structure of a guidance document, there are many examples of good guidance
documents. Examples of taxonomies that
offered a suitable framework to guidance to the Fire Service are found a report
by The Country Fire Authority in Western Australia. This provided a clear,
logical format as did a good practice
guidance for volunteers, published by the Institute for Volunteering Research,
(IVR 1998).
Additional inspiration for the layout of the guidance was
provided by two more substantial publications: Voluntary Matters by Palmer and Hoe (1997) adopts a business
style framework to describe the
strategic issues, whereas McCurly and Lynch (1998) apply a framework and style
of writing that is focussed towards providing practical guidance for volunteer
managers.
The framework for the guidance document developed for the
Fire Service was adapted from a combination of the strategic and tactical
approaches, whereas the style of writing was selected as being suitable for
managers who would have to implement the guidance.
